Closing the Achievement Gap: Service-Learning as a Counselor Intervention

Judith A. Nelson
Sam Houston State University

Abstract

The author describes how school-wide service-learning projects can be integrated into the total developmental guidance and counseling program for the purpose of meeting the needs of all students, providing assistance to minority and economically disadvantaged students, and collecting data that will support the continued growth and success of the guidance program. The article describes current research which suggests that service-learning has the potential to reduce the achievement gap between students from low-socio economic backgrounds and students from high income families and how professional school counselors can use this information to include service-learning in their guidance programs.

Closing the Achievement Gap: Service-Learning as a Counselor Intervention

The new vision for professional school counselors broadens the traditional view to include program development, management, and evaluation (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2005; Bemak, 2000; Erford, House, & Martin, 2003; Gysbers & Henderson, 2006; Martin, 2002). Individual and group counseling, which are traditional responsive services, are only part of a comprehensive developmental guidance program. Greater emphasis is now placed on counselor-generated programs that promote academic success for all students, are data driven, and that elevate the school counselor to a new leadership role (ASCA; Bemak; Erford, House, & Martin; Gysbers & Henderson; Martin).

Recent attention to transforming the role of the professional school counselor indicates that the profession must give up the traditional mental health perspective and focus on programs that respond to the large caseloads of school counselors (Bemak & Chung, 2005; Martin, 2002). According to the authors, a school counselor's energy is best spent working with groups of students, parents, staff, and community members to create programs and interventions that impact large numbers of students. In addition, school counselors who develop strategic interventions that are paired with student needs may impact outcomes positively (Brown & Trusty, 2005). School counselors have the potential to increase student achievement with programming that addresses the needs of targeted populations.

Service-Learning: What Is It?

According to The National and Community Service Act of 1990 (PL 101-610), the definition of service-learning is:

a method under which students or participants learn and develop through active participation in thoughtfully organized service that is conducted in and meets the needs of a community; is coordinated with an elementary school, secondary school, institution of higher education, or community service program, and with the community; and helps foster civic responsibility; and that—is integrated into and enhances the academic curriculum of the students, or the educational components of the community service program in which the participants are enrolled; and provides structured time for the students or participants to reflect on the service experience. (42 U.S.C. 12572 (a) (101)).

Service-learning combines the objectives of the service project with the learning objectives of the classroom in a way that both the provider of service and the recipient of the service are changed in positive ways. Participants in service-learning are provided an opportunity to reflect on their service activities by thinking, discussing, or writing about their experiences. Service learning projects might include, but are not limited to environmental projects, tutoring programs for younger students, assistance for senior citizens, neighborhood renovations, promotion of civic responsibility, campaigns against drug and alcohol abuse, anti-poverty programs, and anti-violence programs ( Texas Center for Service-Learning, 2003).

Through service-learning programs, learning extends beyond the classroom and into the community and provides students a way to build many of the “developmental assets” which are protective factors for youth success (Benson, Galbraith, & Espeland, 1998; Byers, Griffin-Wiesner, & Nelson, 2000). Although service-learning is an educational strategy, it encompasses a philosophy of youth empowerment which helps children develop the assets needed for a productive future. The most successful service-learning projects are guided by youth “voice” and include a strong reflection component (Eyler, 2002; Fredericks, Kaplan & Zeisler, 2000; Scales, Blyth , Berkas, & Kielsmeier, 2000). Guided by caring adults, service-learning participants talk about their concerns and how they would like to impact the community; they plan the service projects and make important decisions regarding the implementation of the projects; and they reflect on their service efforts before, during, and after the completion of the projects. Service to others has clear potential for building prosocial behaviors, enhancing self-esteem, and enhancing school success (Billig, 2004; Scales et al., 2000; Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005). It appears that service-learning programs may have the capacity to enhance the educational experiences of at-risk students and increase the opportunity for students to acquire the assets needed for school success.

Rationale for School Counselors Incorporating Service-Learning Programs into the Developmental Guidance Programs

Meeting the Needs of At-Risk Students

According to data from the National Center for Education Statistics (Skinner & Chapman, 1999), 64 percent of all public schools, including 83 percent of public high schools, reported service-learning projects and activities arranged through school. Most schools with service-learning programs reported strong relationships among students, the school, and the community. Interestingly, the number of student participants in dropout prevention programs and free and/or reduced lunch programs were the lowest of all service-learning programs. In addition, the percentage of schools indicating “reducing student involvement in risk behaviors” as a reason for encouraging student involvement in service-learning was also the lowest of all other percentages of reasons to include students in service projects. In their preliminary findings, Kielsmeier, Scales, Roehlkepartain, and Neal (2004) found that schools in low income areas offered fewer service-learning programs, but saw a greater positive impact on their students than schools in higher income areas. The data indicated that service-learning programs involving “at-risk” students may be an untapped area in which professional school counselors could implement new and exciting prevention programs and interventions.

Other reasons cited for implementing service-learning programs were to help students become more active members of the community, to increase student knowledge and understanding of the community, to foster school and community relations, to encourage altruism, and to improve student social development (Skinner & Chapman, 1999). The rationales cited in the current research for implementing service-learning programs appear to align with the basic student competencies associated with an effective guidance curriculum program as outlined in the National Model for School Counseling Programs (ASCA, 2005).

Positive Outcomes of Service-Learning

New research (Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005) indicated that involvement in service-learning programs contributed to closing the achievement gap between students who were from low socio-economic backgrounds and those who were from more privileged families. According to the research, students from low income families who were engaged in only one hour of service per week demonstrated a significant reduction in the achievement gap between themselves and students from higher socio-economic backgrounds. The research studies included a database of 217,000 6 th through 12 th graders in public schools. The results showed that higher income students who served did the best on all of the outcomes; low income students who served did as well or better on most measures than the high income students who did not serve. Involving at-risk students in service projects appears to be an intervention that promotes an increase in “achievement motivation, school engagement, homework, bonding to school, reading for pleasure, consistent attendance, and high grades” (Scales & Roehlkepartain, p.16) compared to students not involved in service.

Other authors documented the positive outcomes of service-learning programs. Melchior (2000) cited the results of the evaluation of grant expenditures of the national Learn and Serve America Program in order to compare the costs to the benefits of service-learning. The research suggested that the strong impact of service-learning on civic, academic, and social development of youth was worth the relatively low cost of service-learning programs. In another study (Scales, et al., 2000), the effects of service-learning on middle school students were found to be positive for social responsibility and academic success, particularly when the students participated in a substantial number of service hours and reflection activities were part of the program.

According to Billig (2004), current research on K-12 service-learning indicated that students who participated in service-learning were affected in four areas: academic, civic, personal/social, and career exploration. The effects of service-learning on participants varied according to the quality of the programs, but the research provided great promise for the positive impact of service-learning on students. Billig (2004) compiled the results of various studies and concluded that the “evidence that service-learning affects the heads, hearts, and hands of our students is compelling enough to encourage all schools to try it “(p. 24). Students who participated in service-learning were found in some studies to have higher scores in social studies, writing, and language arts than non-participating students; to be cognitively more engaged; and to show increases in problem-solving abilities. In the area of civic engagement, studies indicated that service-learning can produce a positive impact if the service is of high quality and if it is intentionally oriented to civic outcomes. Studies also gave strong evidence that service-learning impacts students positively in the areas of social behaviors, acceptance of differences and cultural heritage, development of ethics, and enhancement of resiliency. The ASCA National Standards (2005) for student academic, career, and personal/social development relate directly to the domains that Billig (2004) identified in the current service-learning research. Professional school counselors can pair the National Standards to the domains that Billig described in her studies through the implementation of service-learning programs.

Some reviews and analyses of service programs focused on students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Muscott (2000) reviewed 11 service-learning programs with children and adolescents and reported with “cautious optimism” that these programs held great promise in that they appeared to promote connection to communities and achievement in school. In Muscott's (2001) introduction to service-learning for students with emotional and behavioral disorders, the author found that service-learning programs appeared to have the potential to promote self-esteem, engage students in the school community, and reframe other people's view of students with emotional and behavioral problems.

In a study conducted by RMC Research Corporation (2005), researchers identified positive outcomes in students in Discipline Alternative Education Programs across the state of Texas who were involved in the Texas Title IV Service-Learning Grant. Outcomes to service-learning included students who were “more likely to value school, be engaged in school, be disposed to being civically engaged, have civic skills, and have favorable attitudes toward people with different cultural backgrounds than students who did not participate in service-learning at the alternative schools” (RMC, p. 83). School staff noticed the following student outcomes to service-learning programs: “better academic performance, enhanced self-esteem, and sense of accomplishment” (RMC, p.84). Students also appeared to develop “personal efficacy, leadership skills, civic responsibility, collaboration skills, positive attitudes toward citizenship, and empathy and desire to help others” (RMC, p.84).

Service-Learning and the Professional School Counselor

Implications for the Professional School Counselor

Service-learning appears to address the issues that professional school counselors and other school leaders hope to incorporate in the educational experiences of all students. According to The Education Trust (2000), serious achievement gaps exist between economically disadvantaged and minority students and those students from middle to high socio-economic backgrounds. School counselors who design comprehensive programs to help close those gaps will meet the needs of all students (ASCA, 2005). In this age of accountability, professional school counselors must provide hard data to validate the effectiveness of their interventions. Service-learning offers a new and exciting venue for working with students across grade levels, educational ability and socio-economic status. Even students with serious emotional and behavioral problems appeared to benefit from involvement in service-learning projects (Muscott, 2000; RMC, 2005).

The RMC Final Report of the Texas Title IV Community Service Grant Program (2005) reports that school administrators had high expectations for students who participated in service-learning. Counselors who advocate for students through service-learning programs help place underprivileged and minority students in a position of promise rather than a position of risk.

Service-Learning and the National Standards

The foundation of the school counseling program includes the National Standards (ASCA, 2005) or student competencies that students must acquire to be successful in school and in their adult lives. The National Standards are comprised of three content areas: academic development, career development, and personal and social development. Within each content area, there are competencies and indicators of student behaviors that are necessary for school success and high academic achievement. Service-learning programs address the three content areas and the skills that students will need to be successful students and citizens. Billig (2004) reported that service-learning programs showed positive impacts on students in the academic domain, the civic domain, the personal/social domain, and career exploration skills.

The first content area is academic development which is critical for students to be successful in school. Martin (2002) points out that often at-risk students are underchallenged academically, are disproportionately represented in special education and remedial classes, and do not have exposure to the best teachers. Since service-learning is integrated into and enhances the curricula of academic subjects, the program helps students acquire knowledge and skills that are needed to understand learning objectives. Current research suggested that students who were involved in service-learning were more likely than students not participating in service-learning to make higher test scores and be more engaged in learning (Billig, 2004; RMC, 2005; Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005). An important component of service-learning is that the service projects are linked directly to academic learning objectives. Classroom instruction becomes more meaningful as students apply learning objectives to real life situations.

The second content area is career development. Often students do not relate their educational experiences to the world of work (Martin, 2002). Service-learning integrates career development into the classroom through “hands-on” experience and self-discovery. Students work side-by-side with community partners and learn firsthand about many career opportunities and the skills necessary to pursue those opportunities. Service-learning has a reflection component, and students are challenged before and after each service project to think about the meaning of their work and the effects of this work on themselves and others (Eylers, 2002). Reflection creates an understanding of the relationship of self, abilities, and the world of work. This self-knowledge has the potential to enhance students' abilities to make informed career decisions and to map out future goals.

Personal and social development is the third content area and is another important part of service-learning. Students are the planners and implementers of service projects from beginning to end and are required to learn and experiment with many social behaviors. Service-learning participants make decisions, set goals, and take the necessary actions to achieve their goals. Through the planning and implementation of service projects, students find their “voice” which allows them to have opinions, to be heard, and to discuss their ideas and thoughts with people who respect and value these ideas (Fredericks et al., 2000). Students feel validated, worthwhile and self-confident. Students who are engaged in service projects learn to be their own advocates as they find their “voice” in issues that they have determined are important. Service-learning participants also learn to listen to and respect other viewpoints, ways of working, and differences in thinking about the world. Research suggested that students were more tolerant of differences in others after they participated in service-learning (Billig, 2000; RMC, 2005); therefore, they not only had the capacity to identify their own beliefs and values, but could listen to others as well.

Delivery System and Service-Learning

School counselors can organize classroom guidance around service-learning projects and include the basic competencies students need for academic and social success. Teachers and support staff can eventually act as service-learning “coordinators” and can be trained to teach the guidance lessons which include the behavioral competencies of the National Standards (ASCA, 2005). These “coordinators” can also help students understand the relationship of the lessons to the service projects they undertake as well as to the learning objectives in the classroom. School counselors can manage the program by offering staff development to teachers; by acting as the liaison between students, staff, and community for the service projects; and by organizing and coordinating the projects. Service-learning as a counselor intervention makes effective use of the counselor's time and allows the school counselor to act as the leader of the total school counseling program and as an advocate for all students and for school reform. The role of the counselor becomes one of supporting the system rather than being supplementary to the system.

Implementing Service-Learning Programs

As the professional school counselor plans the guidance program, it is evident that one person or even a team of several people cannot provide all of the guidance services to meet the needs of an entire student body, staff of teachers, and community-at-large. Bryan (2005) suggests partnership roles for school counselors which include being a team facilitator, an advocate, and a collaborator. These roles elevate the school counselor to a leadership position while taking sole responsibility for the success of the guidance program away from one person or one department.

According to Miller & Neese (1997), the professional school counselor invests a significant amount of time during the first year of implementing a school-wide service-learning program. Fifteen to 20 hours of time per week is a reasonable estimate to get such a program up and running. According to the National Model (ASCA, 2005), 60% of an elementary counselor's time, 50% of a middle school counselor's time, and 45% of a high school counselor's time would not be unreasonable to spend in the delivery of guidance curriculum and system support combined. A service-learning program fits nicely into these two components and makes appropriate use of the counselor's competencies, time, and energy. Much of the time during the start-up period is spent in training teachers and students, communicating with community partners, coordinating schedules, and raising money either through fund-raisers or grants. After the initial planning and implementation stages, teachers and students should feel more comfortable assuming many of the daily duties associated with the program while the school counselor continues to provide support through staff development, to coordinate funding, to maintain relationships with community partners, and to evaluate the effects of the program. A calendar that identifies the time-line for starting a service-learning program can be published and distributed to the appropriate persons. Campuses with more than one counselor may find that one person has a particular interest in service-learning and would be willing to be responsible for the organization of the program. On smaller campuses, the school counselor may request assistance from a team of teachers and administrators or may use the Advisory Council as the “Service-Learning Team.”

Accountability System

According to Nicoli (1994), the accountability system helps counselors maintain the integrity of their programs. Often counseling activities are isolated and disjointed instead of having a connected purpose to the total school program. It is the charge of school counselors to show how students are different as a result of the school counseling program (ASCA, 2005). Counselors must provide reports showing the results of the various counseling activities during the school year as well as the impact of the school counseling program over time. ASCA provides examples of results reports for school counselors to use in assessing their programs.

School wide service-learning programs lend themselves nicely to data collection. Data collection can help determine changes in student behaviors before and after involvement in service projects. Brown and Trusty (2005) point out that data collection that focuses on specific strategic interventions and the desired outcomes can inform counselors about which programs work. For example, if the school counselor investigates the attendance records of a particular school and finds that large numbers of students in a certain grade have excessive absences, those students can be included in the service-learning program for the purpose of increasing their daily attendance rates. Student progress can be monitored by documenting absentee rates before, during, and after participation in the intervention.

One of the important purposes of data collection in school counseling is to make certain that interventions focus on the student populations most in need of assistance. Choosing students to participate in service programs based on potential to drop out of school, number of discipline referrals, absenteeism, or lack of motivation are excellent ways of providing services to those who need them the most. Current research regarding the effects of service-learning substantiated that service-learning programs had powerful effects on even the most at-risk student populations (RMC, 2005; Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005). The ASCA National Model (2005) provides ideas for collecting, disaggregating, and analyzing data. School counselors can use the forms provided in the National Model to document the effects of their programs on closing the gap between high achieving and at-risk students. Data analysis that substantiates academic improvement in students with high needs helps programs gain support in order to expand and improve. This data is also valuable information for promoting and documenting the many interventions and strategies that school counselors use to assist students.

Research suggested that service-learning programs were instrumental in creating positive student behaviors, limiting risk-taking behaviors, and preparing students for future participation in their communities (Billig, 2004; Scales, et. al., 2005; Skinner & Chapman, 1999). In addition to the student results, school counselor performance evaluations and the program audit are also included in the accountability system. These accountability tools are included in the National Model (ASCA, 2005) to assist counselors as they assess their own behaviors and the results of the total guidance program.

Conclusion

Professional school counselors can implement service-learning programs as part of their developmental guidance and counseling programs and promote the standards of the ASCA's (2005) National Model. Service-learning programs impacted large numbers of students in positive ways as some research suggested (Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005; Skinner & Chapman, 1999). According to the ASCA National Model, school counselors are charged with advocating for the academic success of every student which can only be accomplished through the leadership role of the counselor in promoting school reform. Using the National Model, school counselors become an integral part of the education reform movement, collaborating with parents, students, and administrators and providing direct services to all students. Research suggested that service-learning programs increased the likelihood of students being engaged in learning, motivated to make better grades in school, and tolerant of diverse populations and ideas (RMC, 2005; Billig, 2004). There were also strong implications that service-learning had the potential to reduce the achievement gap between students from low-income homes and students from medium to high income backgrounds (Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005).

Implementing programs that address the needs of students who are at-risk of failing and dropping out of school can ensure school administrators and other stakeholders that the professional school counselor is meeting the needs of all students and is at the forefront of educational reform. School counselors must develop leadership skills in order to create and promote programs that prove effective in this age of accountability. Service-learning is an intervention that is research based, that provides a direct link to the standards of ASCA's National Model (2005), and that has the potential for excellent data collection. Service-learning as an intervention is a smart choice for the “transformed” school counselor's guidance program. In addition, school counselors who develop advocacy skills will ensure that low income and minority students are not “left behind” in the competitive school and work environments. Service-learning is an inclusive intervention that has the potential to meet the many needs of at-risk students, to change student behaviors as well as the way at-risk students are viewed by others, and to raise the expectations of these students to a level of achievement that is competitive with their more privileged peers.

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