Islam. While the fusion was slowly going on in the West under the influence of the Christian church, a new religion called Islam was developing in the distant East, and was winning converts so rapidly that it became a serious menace to both the Roman Empire and the Germans. The rapid rise of Islam is explained in part, by the geography of its birthplace, Arabia, and the customs and character of the Arabs, as well as by the personality of the prophet Mohammed.

Geography of Arabia. Arabia is a peninsula in the southwestern part of Asia, bounded on the east by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman: on the south bv the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, on the west by the Red Sea; to the north lies Palestine and a wide desert extending almost to the Euphrates; while in the northwest it is connected with Africa by the peninsula and isthmus of Suez. It contains over a million square miles, and is consequently about onethird as large as the United States. It has never been thickly populated, for probably almost all of the country is a desert waste and very few parts are suited to pasturage or agriculture. Most of it is apparently an elevated plateau, covered with shifting sand. All but one of the rivers dry up during several months of the year. Mountainchains or hills, whose prevailing direction is parallel to the coast, shut out the seabreezes and cut off the rainfall from the interior. There are no forests, and comparatively little vegetation. The horses, for which Arabia has long been noted, have to find their food in the extensive tracts of thin desert grrass. Some of these statements have to be made tentatively, for Arabia has been only partially explored and the interior is little known.

Inhabitants. The occupations of the Arabs were influenced bv these geographical conditions. In the seventh century, the inhabitants could be divided into two general classes: the Bedouins, who lived in tents in the desert, and the dwellers in houses, who were to be found only near the coast in the southern and southwestern parts. The Bedouins were a pastoral people, and made their living chietSv from their flocks and herds. The housedwellers practised sortie agriculture and were traders, but remained in close touch with the nomadic life of the desert. There was no central government; the organization was by tribes. In times of peace the family was the unit; only in case of war did the head of the tribe have any real authority outside his immediate family. Polygamy was the rule for those who could afford the expense. Private vengeance for injuries was the custom, but a feud might be stopped by a payment similar to the wergeld. The Arabs were noted for their vivid imagination and great love for poetry.

Religion. Their religion was a mixture of natureworship and fetishism, although all believed theoretically in the existence of one supreme God, Allah. But the djinns, or genii, were also worshiped because they were believed to act constantly, in manifold ways, for good or evil. Jewish, Christian, and Persian beliefs had penetrated into the country, and each had some devotees. A sacred month was observed by all, and during this time the great fairs were held and no feuds were allowed. Mecca, which was the chief religious center and inviolable, contained the great national sanctuary, the Kaaba, housing approximately three hundred and sixty idols. Among the latter were an image of Christ and also the famous black stone, a meteorite fallen from heaven, which was the most highly venerated object. The prevailing polytheism and influences from abroad were causing both a decay in the sincere belief in idols and a condition of unrest. The absence of a central government and of a national religion were important influences in preparing the way for Mohammed's success.

Youth of Mohammed. The prophet was born about the year 571 of our era. In early childhood he was left an orphan, and his inheritance is said to have comprised five camels who fed on wild shrubs (that is animals of an inferior quality), a herd of goats, a black maid or servant, and a small house. Little is known of his early vears. His utterances in the Koran contain only one reference to this period:
"Did He not find thee an orphan and sheltered thee?
"And found thee erring and guided thee?
"And found thee poor and enriched thee?"
From the traditions it appears that Mohammed grew up a shepherd boy and later entered the service of a rich widow, his cousin Khadija. He won her love, and at twentyfive married her; she is said to have been about fifteen years his elder. This marriage gave him wealth, position, and leisure.

The Call to preach. From childhood Mohammed had been subject to peculiar seizures, and as he grew older the attacks became more frequent. His followers have regarded these as holy trances; Christian writers have called them sometimes epileptic or cataleptic fits, sometimes hysteria. This condition is important, as it made him peculiarly susceptible to nervous excitement. After his marriage, he was wont to retire to a cave during one month each year, where he gave himself up to meditation and prayer. But until he was about forty years of age there was no hint of his prophetic career. At one time, while in retirement from the world, he had a vision in which he believed that the angel Gabriel came down to the lowest heaven and commanded him to preach.
"Cry, in the name of thy Lord, who created--
"Created man from blood.
"Cry! for thy Lord is the bountifulest!
"Who taught the pen,
"Taught man what he did not know."

Early Preaching. For some time Mohammed was in doubt, but Khadija comforted him and believed in him. Then he began his preaching, appealing to " the wonders of nature, the stars in their courses, the sun and the moon, the dawn cleaving asunder the dark veil of night, the lifegiving rain, the fruits of the earth, life and death, change and decay--"all are signs of God's power, if only ye would understand."' " This earliest portion of the Koran is one long blazonry of nature's beauty. How can you believe in aught but the one omnipotent God, when you see this glorious world around you and this wondrous tent of heaven above you? is Mohammed's frequent question to his countrymen."

Hegira. The prophet was not without honor among his immediate associates, for his first followers were his wife, his servant, and his cousin Ali; but progress was very slow, and it is said that in three years he made but fourteen converts. There was little that was new in the religion which he preached, except that he was the prophet of God. He did not claim supernatural powers or worship for himself. " I am no more than man; when I order you anything with respect to religion, receive it, and when I order you about the affairs of the world then I am nothing more than man." Throughout his life he always denied that he could work a miracle. Consequently his fellow citizens paid little heed to him. Abu Bekr, Othman, Omar, and Ali were almost the only men of good family who believed in him, and his followers were mainly from the lower orders, especially slaves. Opposition was not aroused until he began to preach against the idols; then his lowly followers were persecuted, and finally his own life was in danger. He made one unsuccessful attempt to withdraw to another city, but was stoned from its gates. Then he fled to Yatrib, which was renamed MedinetenNabi, now Medina. This hegira, or flight, was in the year 622 A.D.; and from this the Mohammedans reckon the beginning of their era.

The Prophet's Personality. At Medina the prophet's personality and popularity gained converts rapidly. He was noted for his eloquence, and his followers have believed that his inspired utterances are inimitable in their beauty. Traditions have handed down many fragmentary statements from which it is possible to reconstruct some phases of his character. He was fond of animals, and they trusted in him. He seldom passed by a child without at least a smile, and he loved to take part in the children's games; after he had married the child Aisheh, he frequently played with dolls with her. His nature was kind and forgiving; his disposition, grave and dignified. He never lost the friendship of one whom he trusted. In his habits he was simple; his clothes were plain but exquisitely neat; he delighted in ablutions and perfumes. At home he kindled the fire, swept the floor, milked the goats, and mended his own clothes and shoes. His regular food consisted of dates and water, or barley bread; milk and honey were luxuries of which he was v ery fond, but which he seldom allowed himself. A bench always stood before his door on which any beggar might rest and share his food. And he was, as Aisheh said, " bashful as a veiled virgin."

His Successes. At Medina Mohammed soon became strong enough to attempt vengeance on his enemies at Mecca. For several years there was more or less fighting, and finally in 630 Mohammed captured Mecca, and, although he left the black stone as an object of reverence, purified the Kaaba of its idols. Standing before each one, he said: " Truth is come, and falsehood is fled away ! " and his followers smashed the idol. By the end of the following year all Arabia was enlisted for the prophet. Mohammed sent messengers to the monarchs of the neighboring countries, summoning them to receive the new religion which he called Islam, or submission to God. But he died in 632 before he could undertake any farther conquests.

The Koran. Mohammed had enjoined upon his followers: " Let the Koran ever be your guide. Do what it commands or permits; shun what it forbids." His order was obeyed, and the Koran, which consisted of his utterances received in visions, was reverenced and became the religious guide for all true Mussulmans. His sayings had been committed to memory or written down by his associates on paper, parchment, palm leaves, bones, or stones. As the whole formed a confused mass, his successor, AbuBekr, 632634, had the fragments collected and put together. But, as other copies of Mohammed's utterances were in existence, disputes soon arose as to what were the correct forms. Consequently the third caliph, or successor, Othman, 644656, had an authoritative collection made, and ordered all other copies to be destroyed. This collection has remained practically unchanged down to the present day. It is very badly arranged: the first revelation, which was quoted above, is in chapter ninetysix. In general, the earliest utterances come late in the book, and the later and longer passages come in the first part of the book. There are frequent repetitions and contradictions. While some utterances are very beautiful, the greater portion seems very commonplace in translation. But the orthodox Mussulmans delight in the Arabic original and assert not only that it is of divine origin, but also that it is perfect in both form and content. It has certainly been one of the most influential books in the history of the world and deserves most careful study.

Dogma and Practice. The dogma which it teaches consists in certain beliefs and practices which have had a remarkable and continuing influence on historical events. The Mussulman must believe in Allah, the one and omnipotent God: "He begetteth not nor is He begotten; nor is there one like unto Him." The faithful must also believe in the day of judgment and the resurrection; and in Mohammed as Allah's prophet--"verily they only are true believers who believe in God and His apostle." These are the principal points in the creed, but the Koran also teaches that the Mussulman must believe in the angels, who are mortal and will die on the day of judgment; in the scriptures, which include some Christian and Jewish books, but as the Koran is the final revelation it has superseded these; in the prophets, of whom the greatest were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed; and in absolute predestination--"every man's fate have we bound about his neck." The principal religious practices are four: prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage. There are five set times for prayer each day: at daybreak, just after noon, in the middle of the afternoon, at sunset, and at nightfall. Prayer is preceded by purification with water, or sand in the desert. Fasting is enjoined during the month of Ramadan and lasts all day long; believers are allowed to eat and drink at night until they can discern a black thread from a white thread by the light of day. Almsgiving was to be of the best of things; " ye will never attain unto righteousness until ye give in alms of that which ye love." A favorite saying of one of the caliphs was: " Praver carries us half way to God; fasting brings us to the door of His palace; and alms procure us admission." The pilgrimage is to Mecca and must be made at least once by each believer. But " he only shall visit the Mosque of God who believes in God and the Last Dav, and is instant in prayer, and payeth the alms, and feareth God only." The Koran also prohibits winedrinking and gambling, " abominations of the devil's making"; and eating certain things, especlally pork. There are many other precepts governing the daily life and enjoining morality, for among the Mohammedans moral conduct and religion were closely associated.

Early Conquests. The yoke placed upon the believers was not a light one and the religion needed a strong leader if it was to be generally accepted. Consequently when the prophet died there was a.t first consternation among his sincere followers; and many Arabs, especially Bedouins, seized the opportunity to revolt, as they resented so keenly the restrictions and taxation imposed upon them by the new religion. AbuBekr, who was chosen as caliph, or successor, had been one of the earliest converts and most sincere believers. At the prophet's death he had said: '* Ye people! he that hath worshiped Mohammed, let him know that Mohammed is dead; but he that hath worshiped Allah, that the Lord liveth and doth not die." By his wisdom and boldness he managed to stem the crisis and to reduce all Arabia to obedience again. Then began Early the wonderful conquests. The Arabs, united into a nation for the first time, under the inspiration of the new religion, destroyed the empire of the Sassanids and robbed the Roman Empire of many of its wealthiest provinces; between 634 and 649 Syria, Palestine, Armenia, Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, and Egypt were subdued and wrested from the Roman Empire. This was due partly to the weakness of the Empire, which attempted no effective resistance; partly to the religious differences and political disaffections among the inhabitants; and partly to the reckless daring and fatalism of the Moslem leaders. Mohammed had tattght, "Fear the heat of combats ? Hell is hotter ! Paradise is before you !" The Arabs among the population of Syria had welcomed their brethren and embraced the religion, and, in general, the inhabitants of the conquered lands found the Arab yoke lighter than the Roman, and seldom attempted revolt. Persia had been conquered with almost equal ease, between the years 632 and 642. It had been weakened by its unsuccessful wars against the Roman Empire, and many of the inhabitants were disaffected on account of the absolutism and incompetence of the rulers. Islam was now dominant from the eastern boundary of Persia to Tripoli in Africa. The Arabs were pushing onward in every direction when their advance was interrupted by civil war at home.

Civil War. During these years the caliphs had been chosen from the old companions of MGhammed; AbuBekr, after ruling two years, had been succeeded by Omar, caliph 634444; when the latter died, Othman had been elected. Although he had been a believer from the first, he did not have the intense feeling of hostility to the people of Mecca that was held by most of the old believers. He was accused of favoring his kinsmen the Ommiads, who were among the leading men of Mecca and had formerly been opposed to the prophet. This supposed predilection for the Ommiads aroused antagonism and finally led to the assassination of Othman in 656. These internal dissensions, which had checked the advance of the Mussulmans, were greatly increased by the election of Ali, the soninlaw and adopted son of Mohammed, to succeed Othman. Ali did nothing to punish the murderers of the latter and was suspected of having been an accomplice. Civil war broke out at once and the rebellion was led by Aisheh, the widow of the prophet. The fighting lasted one hundred and ten days and there are said to have been ninety battles. It was called " the war of the camel," because Aisheh rode on a camel in directing the revolt. She was finally captured and the war ended. But the Ommiads then began a new war. After some fighting the xvhole matter was referred to arbitration and decided adversely to Ali. One of the Ommiads was proclaimed caliph and took Damascus as his capital, but Ali refused to submit and held Persia and Mesopotamia. He was assassinated in 66I by a member of a new sect, the Kharijites, who wished to have no caliph, but a democratic government.

Ommiads at Damascus. Under the Ommiads at Damascus the rule was much more centralized and the office of caliph became hereditary The rulers were not religious and were interested in Islam only as a political factor. The " old believers " in Medina and Mecca were much scandalized and attempted to become independent, but both cities were captured by the Ommiad caliph. Most of the inhabitants of Medina were put to the sword, the Kaaba at Mecca was burned, and the rebellion was put down so thoroughly that all Arabia recognized the authority of the ruler of Damascus. The large income which flowed in from the Mohammedan conquests caused a change in the standard of living; luxuries became common and much of the former democratic simplicity was lost; but as yet Islam retained its vigor as a conquering religion and the population soon increased sufficiently to make further advance possible.

Conquest of Africa. The second great period of Mohammedan conquest began in the last decade of the seventh century and continued for about fifty years. The caliph first directed his efforts to Africa, where Carthage was taken and destroyed in 697, and by 708 almost the whole of the northwest as far as the ocean was subdued by theArabs. But this was a conquest from the Berbers rather than from the Roman Empire. After the defeat of the Vandals the heavy taxation under the Empire and the persecutions of the Jews and heretical Christians had caused many of the inhabitants to leave Africa. The imperial government was too weak to keep the old inhabitants, the Berbers, in obedience, and the former provinces became more or less independent states, acknowledging sometimes a theoretical subordination to the Empire, but having lost much of the Roman civilization. Christianity had been superseded to a great extent by a mixture of natureworship and fetishworship. As a result, although separate Berber states made an obstinate resistance, the Arabs were able to subdue one portion after another, and many Berbers eventually became Mohammedans.

Conquest of Spain. From Africa the Mohammedans passed over into Spain. There the Visigothic kingdom was weak and rent with dissensions; some of the leading men were anxious to see the king defeated and the inhabitants were severely oppressed and ready for any change. Consequently a single victory, in 7II, was sufficient to open the whole country to Tarik, who commanded the army, and from whom Gibraltar takes its name. It is said that his forces numbered only about twelve thousand, of whom all but three hundred were Berbers. If this is true, it is a striking illustration of the way in which the Arabs used the subject peoples to extend their conquests. In Spain the Visigothic nobles frequently joined with the invaders. New bands of Arabs or Berbers poured into the country, and soon all the peninsula, except the mountains of Galicia, was occupied by the Mussulmans.

Battle of Poitiers. They pressed on across the Pyrenees and began to reduce southern Gaul, until in 732 they met with their first real check near Poitiers, where Charles Martel had led a great host in order to prevent their advance. From the fragmentary accounts of the meeting of the two armies we can glean the main facts; for nearly a week Christians and Mohammedans watched one another, waiting anxiously for the moment of battle; finally the Arab leader attacked; in the heat of the fight the Franks, who had formed in hollow square, were like an immovable ocean; they stood shoulder to shoulder without giving way, as if they were frozen to the ground, and with their swords hewed down the Arabs. Night at length put an end to the contest; in the morning the Franks saw the tents of the Mussulmans deserted, but feared an ambush; finally they sent out spies, who learned that the squadrons of the Ishmaelites had vanished in the night. Later legends embellished their victory and recounted that three hundred and seventyfive housand of the Arabs together with their king had been killed, while the Frankish loss was only fifteen hundred. Even in mod ern times the importance of this battle has been greatly over estimated. It was not a very decisive conflict; the Arabs with drew, but continued their raids elsewhere; in 743, for example, they pillaged Lyons, and they were not expelled from Narbonne until 759. But all further advance was effectually checked by the revolt of the Berbers in Africa, who regretted their lost independ ence. Their rebellion made it impossible for the Mohammedans in Spain to get any new recruits from the East, as they held the country through which reinforcements must be sent. Uncon sciously, they were aiding Charles Martel in the consolidation of his power in Gaul.

Conquests in the East. In the East the Mohammedans had made great advances during this same period; they had captured Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarcand and had advanced to the boundary of China; they had taken Kabul and had subjugated the valley of the Indus. But they did not succeed in getting possession of Asia Minor, and twice they failed in attempting to reduce Constantinople by siege. The city on the Bosphorus was then, as so often later, the bulwark of Europe. In spite of these defeats the Mohammedan dominions reached their greatest extent under the Ommiads. During the same period the Arabs made a marvelous advance in civilization, but this reached its culmination a little later, under the Persian influence at Bagdad, and consequently will be described in another chapter.

Rise of the Abbassids. The last Ommiad rulers at Damascus were not able to retrieve the failures at Poitiers and Constantinople. Although they did wage successful war against the Byzantine Empire, and raids into Gaul did continue for some years, they were continually being weakened by disaffections and rebellions among their subjects. The descendants of Ali had many partisans who held up to execration the irreligious conduct and the luxury of the Ommiads, whose family had secured the caliphate through the slaughter of the most faithful followers of the prophet. Repeated attempts at rebellion were crushed and the Fatimites, who claimed to be descendants of Ali and Fatima (Daughter of Mohammed), were not able to overthrow the caliphate; but the Abbasids, descendants of the uncle of Mohammed, profited by the general disaffection and, after winning two battles against the last Ommiad, established Abu'l Abbas upon the throne.

Ommiad Emirate in Spain. He took the name of al Saffah (the Bloody), which he well deserved, for after the second victory over the Ommiad caliph, he hunted out relentlessly each male Ommiad and had him put to death. Of the whole family only one or possibly two escaped; one may have led an obscure existence and founded a petty dynasty in the southeast of Arabia; one, after many vicissitudes, became the ruler in Spain. There in 752 he established the emirate of Cordova. By his success Spain was wrested from the power of the Abbasid caliphs; this was the first real break in the unity of Islam. The Ommiads had ruled over all the followers of the Prophet; their successors the Abbasids did not; the power of Islam was gradually sapped by the revolt and withdrawal of one portion of the caliphate after another. But no other loss was so important for the history of Europe as the revolution in Spain which isolated the Mussulmans there and made them a less dangerous foe to the Christian tribesmen, who were able gradually to recover the whole of the peninsula; but this reconquest was not completed for over seven hundred years, and consequently will be described elsewhere.

Bagdad. The Ommiads still had many partisans at Damascus, so that it seemed prudent for the Abbasids to move their capital to the east, where their Persian followers would be nearer; their victory was a Persian victory and the Arabs were no longer the dominant people. After a short residence elsewhere, the site of Bagdad was decided upon as the future capital, and there between 762 and 766 A. D. was built a round city with a double wall. One hundred thousand workmen were employed to expedite the work. This was an excellent situation, as it was in the middle of a fertile country and protected by its situation between the two rivers. Bagdad soon increased in size and population, and became renowned as second only to Constantinople in splendor.

Haroun-al-Rashid. This was especially true in the reign of Haroun-al-Rashid, 786-809, the hero of A Thousand and One Nights. Even before he became caliph he had led a victorious army to Scutari and had extorted tribute from the Byzantine Empire. Whenever the annual payment was withheld, he made a new expedition into Greek lands and forced the emperor to terms. Haroun was extremely active and a great traveler, making the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times, and visiting distant portions of his caliphate. Among his subjects he was renowned as the just (al Rashid), in spite of the well-known slaughter of the Barmecides; for the justice which he administered to the poor was proverbial, and the latter delighted to tell how the great caliph wandered about in disguise at night in order to see how his subjects in the capital lived and were treated. The Thousand and One Nights has made him one of the best known characters in history, and, allowing for the natural exaggeration, presents a remarkable picture of the civilization at Bagdad and the habits and pursuits of its inhabitants.

Change in Ideals. A noteworthy change had taken place. The early history of Islam, after the death of the Prophet, is little more than a chronicle of warfare and conquest. At Bagdad under Haroun, as is clearly evident from the tales in the Arabian Nights, there was little zest for fighting and the people were engaged in commerce, travel, and other peaceful pursuits. They were addicted to pleasure, and religion exercised very little restraint upon their conduct. They had come under the influence of the older civilizations in the lands which they had conquered, especially in Persia, and had become willing pupils of the Greek traditions in philosophy and science. The most marked trait in their culture, however, is its composite character. They borrowed or adapted from all the peoples with whom they had come into contact. It has been well said that they overran the domains of science as rapidly as they had conquered the kingdoms of the earth. They were tolerant and no longer willed that conquered men should either become Mohammedans or else be exterminated. They had always kept many of the conquered women as concu bines or slaves, and the offspring were usually more tolerant than the fathers. Both Jews and Christians were welcome at the court of the caliph and some held confidential positions about his person. Many others found employment in the cities and car ried on trades and even learned professions.

Luxury. The followers of the Prophet had departed widely from the habits of the early Arabs. The caliph's income, which came in from the subject lands and from tributes, was enormous, and was spent with lavish hands. The golden stream flowed into the laps of the courtiers and highly paid officials and trickled down to the populace. In place of the old-time frugality extravagance was now the fashion. It showed itself in the food, the clothing, the buildings, in reckless expenditures of every kind. Noted princes prepared cook-books filled with receipts for costly dishes and piquant sauces. Wine was drunk, in spite of the prohibitions of the Koran. Many other beverages were concocted and snow was brought from the mountains to cool them. In exercising their ingenuity in the manufacture of new kinds of incense and perfumes to tickle their jaded senses, the Moslems were wonderfully fertile. A similar evolution had taken place in their clothing. In place of the one homespun garment of the earlier days men now wore several, of cotton, woolen, linen, or silken stuffs, all richly dyed. Red and yellow were the favorite colors. The women were even more gorgeously clad than the men and often their dresses were adorned with gold thread and many jewels. To repeat the accounts which have been handed down by the chroniclers would merely recall the luxurious garments portrayed in the tales of Scheherazade. In fact, she does not appear to have had much talent for invention in this field, as even the richest dresses which she described seem commonplace after some of the accounts given by Arab historians. The palaces of the ca liphs were wonderfully magnificent and almost resembled those described by Beckford in his Father. Many of the wealthy cit izens possessed costly houses, filled with expensive furniture, sometimes cooled by snow in summer and heated in winter. All opened upon flower gardens and orchards, carefully watered and tended. These palaces were usually built in a style which com bined Byzantine and Persian forms. We can form some idea of their appearance from the Alcazar at Seville and the Alhambra in Granada, which are of a later date and seem to hold a place intermediate between the palaces of the most extravagant caliphs and the less extensive ones built by their subjects. The gardens were an important feature, as the Mohammedans were fond of flowers and eagerly sought rare varieties.

Agriculture. They had introduced and acclimatized not only flowers, but also j many kinds of vegetables and fruits. The list of those with which Europe and America have been enriched through their agency would be a very long one. For they were especially interested in agriculture, as some of their sayings show: " He who plants, he who sows, he who makes the earth bring forth food suited to man and beast performs an oblation of which account will be kept in heaven." " It is one of the duties of the government to make the canals necessary for the cultivation of the soil." They had learned the methods practised in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. They studied the treatises which had been handed down and themselves wrote new and more scientific works on the use of manure and irrigation, on grafting, on the importance of allowing the land to lie fallow, on plant diseases and insect pests. Wherever they found a new vegetable, a beautiful flower, or an edible fruit, they attempted to grow it in their gardens and thence to transplant it to other lands. They were especially fond of carrying the products of their old homes to the new countries which they had conquered. Abderrahman introduced from Syria into Spain a palm-sprout which he had carefully tended. The palm-trees in Spain and Portugal still bear witness to the love of his old surroundings which the homesick monarch felt. The list of the vegetable products which the Arabs gathered in their wanderings would be a long one and in many cases it is uncertain where these were found. From India probably they got rice, sugar-cane, oranges and turmeric; from Egypt, papyrus and cassia; from Syria, apricots, peaches, and lemons; from Persia, the silk-worm and the mulberry tree. Bananas grew in Arabia itself. In some cases the country mentioned was not the original home, but seems to have been the place where the Arabs found the product. At all events they carried all of these to Sicily and Spain. In addition, they introduced into these countries cotton, pomegranates, saffron, madder, sumach, camomile, roses anl other flowers, including the convolvulus or morning glory, and very many other products of the vegetable world. [This subject has not been thoroughly studied; some of the statements above may be proved to be incorrect by further research. But there can be no doubt of the great debt which we owe to the agricultural zeal of the Arabs.]

Commerce. The ease with which the plants were carried from one country to another is indicative of the freedom of intercourse betxveen all parts of the Moslem world. This was especially important in facilitating commerce, which was not burdened by tolls, restrictions, and different monetary systems, as in Europe. Moreover, the merchant's calling held a higher place in the public estimation than in feudal lands. Mohammed had been a merchant and naturally no one could lose caste by following his example. Bagdad was exceptionally well-placed for commerce, as it was the center of many trade routes. Not far distant was Bassora (Basra) and to its harbor came the vessels which traded with the ports of Arabia, the Red Sea, India and China; even Chinese junks came thither, although most of the traffic was in the hands of the Moslems. Besides these water routes goods were car ried overland by caravans which traversed Asia, visited the Black Sea and Mediterranean ports, skirted along the north coast of Africa and even penetrated far into its interior. At a much later date, when the Mohammedan commerce was no longer so unrestricted, Richard the Lion-Hearted captured a caravan, and 03 a partial list of the wares which it carried is given by a western chronicler. These included spices, gold and silver, silken man tles, purple and scarlet robes, arms and weapons, coats of mail, costly cushions, pavilions, tents, biscuits, pastry, conserves, medi cines, basins, chess-boards, silver dishes and candelabra, sugar, and many other articles. The caravan is said to have been com posed of 4700 camels, besides countless mules and asses. In the days of the early Abbasids each city had its bazaar, or merchants' quarter, and in the great centers were to be found porcelain, silks, lacquer and tea from China; spices, drugs, pearls and precious stones from India and the islands in the Indian Ocean; black slaves, ivory and gold-dust from Africa; white slaves, honey, wax and furs from the distant Scandinavian countries. The extent of the commerce with Europe is attested not only by the products found in the Moslem countries, but also by the hoards of Arabic coins which have been dug up in Russia, Swe den, Germany, and other parts of Europe. A single find at Alainz included over 15,000 coins. One of the best known tales in the Thousand and One Nights recounts the adventures of Sind bad the Sailor. It has long been recognized that the account of his wanderings is based upon actual reports of voyages made by Moslem merchants, and many of the places which he was said to have visited have been identified and his descriptions have been shown to be, in some instances, remarkably accurate. [See Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, Vol. I, pp. 438-450] His method of carrying on trade and the wares in which he dealt were characteristic of the commerce in the days of Haroun-al- Rashid.

Manufacturing. The Moslems acted as carriers and many of the wares in which they traded were produced by others. But there were also many articles manufactured in Mohammedan countries, and the number increased steadily, to satisfy the demands of trade. At first, most of the work was done by Jews or Christians, but gradually the people in some districts would devote themselves in large part to making some one specialty. Iron was mined in both Arabia and Persia and some localities soon obtained a well-deserved reputation for producing many varieties of iron and steel goods, especially weapons and armor. In the early period Damascus and Toledo had not as yet become famous for their swords; but both straight and curved ones were made in other parts of the Moslem world and had won a great reputation. Excellent crossbows were being made and the breast-plates were considered the best in the world. Also steel mirrors, for then steel and not glass was used for this purpose, were exported far and wide. In other branches of iron work, as well as in goods made from other metals found in Arabia, there were many products. The goldsmiths were famous and found ample employment in catering to the prevailing love of luxury and adornment. For the same reason the makers of fine clothes and other products of the loom amassed wealth. Many rich and handsome stuffs were made. The caliph employed a large number of workmen to make robes of honor, of which he always kept a store for gifts to ambassadors or to subjects whom he wished to reward. These were frequently marvels of fine workmanship and cost almost incredible sums of money. Rugs were made in great numbers and were used for wall-decorations and to shut out drafts, as well as for carpets. In summer straw mats were in demand instead of rugs, and these often were adorned with complicated figures and most extravagant workmanship. Naturally, tents were in common use and these afforded an opportunity for lavish display. They were frequently of immense size and great height. Syria was noted for its manufacture of glass, especially glassware ornamented with gold, and many costly pieces were made. Some caliphs made extensive collections of fine specimens. Another article which was exported widely was paper, made from papyrus or cotton. Workmen were brought to Asia from Egypt, where this manufacture had been carried on for centuries. The Moslems soon excelled in the production of paper as well as in making inks and in the binding of books. They refined sugar, which they exported as far as China and in which they preserved fruits with such skill that these also became far-famed articles of export. Finally we may mention the perfumes, of which there was a very large variety. These were in great demand, both in the Moslem world and outside.

Science. Many of these manufactures, e. g. glass-making, would have been impossible without some scientific knowledge. In this the Arabs had been the pupils of the Greeks, but had also learned much from others, and in turn themselves contributed to its advance. Some of them held that " the ink of science is of more value than the blood of the martyr." It is not possible here to go through the whole range of the sciences which they studied and in which they were the leaders during the Middle Ages; only a few examples can be given. Medicine in the days of Haroun was practised almost exclusively by non-Moslems, especially Christians of Oriental origin and Jews; but later many others, including Indians and Persians and finally Arabs, became noted in this field. The doctors were then paid exclusively according to results and received no fees except when the patients were cured. They specialized and the oculists seem to have been peculiarly successful. But a good practitioner in any line might secure an ample income, and even an almost fabulous one if he was the caliph's physician. Galen and Hippocrates were the great authorities, but the doctors were not content to be mere imitators and some added to the store of medical lore; e.g., Rhazed, in the second half of the ninth century, won fame by his treatise on smallpox.

Chemistry. In the development of chemistry they seem to have been more independent; and, if they did not lay the foundations of the science, they did very much to improve it. " They first invented and named the alembic for the purpose of distillation, analyzed the substances of the three kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and affinities of alkalis and acids, and converted the poisonous minerals into soft and salutary medicines." But much of their study deserves the name of alchemy rather than chemistry, as they were chiefly interested in the search for the philosopher's stone, which would transmute base metals into gold, and in the discovery of the elixir of life, which would make a man eternally youthful.

Mathematics and Astronomy. In mathematics, in which they followed Ptolemy, they won a deserved fame which is attested by our use of the term " Arabic figures." It is still uncertain to what extent this popular usage is justified, but it is certain that the figures themselves are older than the Moslem civilization. The case is clearer for algebra, for which we have borrowed the name from the Arabic. The Treatise on Algebra composed by Mohammed ibn Mousa, under the reign of Haroun's grandson, in 820 A.D., later came into use in the Christian world and was not superseded until the sixteenth century. Arab scholars in the ninth and tenth centuries did much to develop the study of spherical trigonometry. They founded observatories and attempted, in the first half of the ninth century, to measure the size of the earth. But in astronomy they sought especially astrological knowledge and their actual achievements in many phases of this science were, for the most part, by-products of their more engrossing pursuit of astrology as a guide for present action and as a key to the future.

It was possible for the scholars to carry on these scientific pursuits because of the esteem in which education was held. Some early proverbs illustrate the Arab feeling: " He dies not who gives life to learning "; " The world is sustained by four things only: the learning of the wise, the justice of the great, the prayers of the good, and the valor of the brave."

Education and Literature. Mohammed had told his followers, "Seek knowledge even in China." Several of the Abbasid and other caliphs were renowned for their patronage of learning. Institutions which may be roughly differentiated as schools, colleges and universities were established by their liberality. Benjamin of Tudela found twenty schools in Alexandria. In these institutions the boys studied grammar, rhetoric, history, mathematics, astronomy and other sciences, and as a crowning feature theology, with which law was closely associated. The Moslems had very early imbibed a great zeal for the study of theology, partly from the Christian controversialists who were so numerous in Syria. The political divisions encouraged, and were in part based upon, divergences in theological beliefs. The Koran was the text for their grammatical studies. The history which aroused their interest was mainly religious history. Their system of law was based upon the Koran and depended upon its interpretation. Everything united to give theology the place of honor in their educational system, although many students and literary men were more or less irreverent and devoted themselves to other branches. The universities were founded in connection with mosques and were equipped with libraries. In fact, there were a great many extensive libraries formed in various parts of the Moslem world. Arab Spain is said to have had seventy public libraries. Most of the figures as to their size come from later times and are open to suspicion. As examples we may cite one at Tripoli which contained 100,000 volumes and another in Spain which possessed 400,000. The earlier libraries consisted largely of translations of the Greek works from which the Arabs derived so much of their knowledge; later on, they themselves became copious authors. Private individuals sometimes had extensive collections of books; one claimed that it would take four hundred camels to carry his library. The volumes, however, contained then much less than an average volume does to-day and many were probably like the books of Caesar in their length. It should also be remembered that scholars and particularly poets were held in high esteem and their works were eagerly cherished. The caliphs and their chief officials would reward a neatly turned verse or a witty answer by magnificent gifts, frequently of gold, but probably more usually of robes of honor. One poet is said to have received so many gifts of the latter kind that when his property was inventoried after his death it contained " a hundred complete suits of dress, two hundred shirts, and five hundred turbans."

Travelers. This poet must have traveled from center to center to have accumulated such a store. But there was nothing unusual in this, for there was much traveling in the Moslem world. The officials and agents of the caliphs had to make long journeys because of the extent of the caliphate. For their convenience much was done which aided other travelers. Then, too, embassies were sent to distant lands; presents were sent to the ruler of China in the East and to Charlemagne in the West. The merchants, as has already been stated, traveled far and wide. Many scholars went from one country to another to pursue their studies; for they believed that " Allah makes easy the way to paradise for him who travels to learn." Explorers were sent out by the caliphs in the ninth century to ascertain the truth of stories which they had heard, or to report on the characteristics of distant lands. Doctors mere accustomed to collect, if possible, their own drugs and medicines and, consequently, had to go where these were to be found.

Geography. Works on geography were composed by travelers and others. One writer lived at Bassora and collected all the facts and anecdotes that he could learn from the merchants who frequented that port. As a rule the geographers followed the Greek traditions as to the size and form of the earth and its divisions, but they made corrections and additions. In particular, they made maps which may be described as excellent for their time, and especially A so when their productions are contrasted with the ignorance and crudity shown in the maps made by the Christians. But their works were confined almost wholly to Moslem lands and they lacked in concision and order. They described not merely the geography but everything else of interest which they had learned. Their books have been happily described as a mixture of " a book of cities, or a gazetteer, and a book of marvels, or a collection of natural history, folk-lore, and fairy stories." There were many such works composed, from the ninth century onward; naturally the later ones were usually better than the earlier. One of the best was the work of al Mukadassi of Jerusalem, who was born in 946 A.D. For more than a score of years he journeyed through all the lands of the Moslems. Then he attempted to give a systematic account of all the countries which he had visited and of the manners and peculiarities of all the various nations. He had read widely, but his work was original to a great extent and was based chiefly upon his own observations. Such travelers were sure of a welcome everywhere and together with the other scholars and the merchants did much to unify the Moslem world.

Division and Decline. There was need of such a unifying influence, for political unity disappeared; the process of its decay is plainly visible in the reigns of the grandson and great-grandson of Haroun, at a time when rapid progress was being made in many branches of science and other learning. As we look back it is very easy to see many reasons for the decline, and in some respects its causes were very , similar to those of the decline of the old Roman Empire, or to those which brought about the fall of the Merovingians and the Carolingians. But there were also causes which were peculiar to the Moslem world. The caliph possessed absolute power and his executive functions embraced all religious, political and legal activities. To exercise such powers wisely over an empire of such enormous extent, including peoples of so many different nationalities, a very strong man was needed. Such men are very rare in any age and any society, but were particularly lacking under the conditions of luxurious and voluptuous living which prevailed in Bagdad. Life in the harem sapped the vigor and blunted the powers of the Mohammedan rulers. Then, too, there was no fixed rule of succession and palace intrigues were constant. The prize was so great that it tempted many. Caliphs attempted to ward off this danger by having a favorite son recognized as successor during their own lifetime, but frequently their wishes were thwarted. They could not depend upon the loyalty of the governors of provinces, particularly because the latter had been given too much power. In order to save trouble and expense they had been made practically absolute in their provinces, being allowed to collect the taxes, out of at which they had to pay the soldiers and provide for the other administrative expenses; the only requirement was that they should send the caliph each year a fixed sum. Consequently rulers inThe distant provinces revolted and no longer sent the annual payment. In many cases it was impossible to reduce such rebels to submission. As has been stated, Spain had become independent under an Ommiad. Africa revolted. Nearer home, even in Persia itself, some parts passed from the caliph's control. Religious enthusiasm had been the only bond which held the people together, and this was no longer potent. Religious dissensions played a large role in the decay; for there were manv sects and often the leader of a sect was able to get a local following and to pose as a champion of one or another of the peoples gathered together into this unwieldy empire. Even in his own capital the caliph did not feel safe, and in place of the Arabs, who had been the real military backbone of the caliphate, formed a body-guard of Turks. Its commander, like a pretorian prefect or a mayor of the palace, soon became the all-powerful master of his nominal chief. The caliph at Bagdad came to be little more than the head of the religion, and even in this his position was not undisputed. For in 929 A.D. the ruler of Mohammedan Spain took the title of caliph. In the same century the Fatimite leader in Africa conquered the head of another sect who had already assumed the title, and in turn became caliph. Later he conquered Egypt and transferred his capital to Cairo, so that in the tenth century there were three caliphs, residing, respectively, at Bagdad, Cordova, and Cairo.

Fallen Caliph. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew who had traveled widely in the last half of the twelfth century, was at Bagdad and has left a description of the position the caliph then held. "All Mohammedan kings acknowledge him, and he holds the same dignity over them which the pope enjoys over the Christians. He understands all languages, is well versed in the Mosaic law, and reads and writes the Hebrew tongue. He enjoys nothing but what he earns by the labor of his own hands, and therefore manufactures coverlets, which he stamps with his seal, and which his officers sell in the public market; these articles are purchased by the nobles of the land, and from their produce his necessities are provided. The caliph is an excellent man, trustworthy and kind-hearted towards every one, but generally invisible to the Mohammedans.... The caliph leaves his palace but once every year, namely at the time of the feast called Ramadan; on this occasion many visitors assemble from distant parts, in order to have an opportunity of beholding his countenance. He thel bestrides the royal mule, dressed in kingly robes, which are composed of gold and. silver cloth. On his head he wears a turban, ornamented with precious stones of inestimable value.... He is saluted loudly by the assembled crowd, who cry: ' Blessed art thou, our lord and king.' . . . The procession moves on into the court of the mosque, where the caliph mounts a wooden pulpit and expounds the law.... The caliph never leaves his palace again for a whole year."

Orthodoxy. While the caliph had lost his power the religion of Islam had gained in strength. Although various sects had made converts, especiallv among the learned, the great mass of people at Bagdad had never been affected by religious speculations, which they were too ignorant to understand. The scholar might assert that " doubt is the foundation of all human knowledge," and caliphs might assert that " the Koran was created "; the great mass remained orthodox. By the middle of the ninth century the caliph, in order to win support against his internal foes, decreed as the state dogma that the Koran was divinely inspired and must be followed absolutely. Orthodoxy became more firmly fixed; a belief in rigid predestination prevailed; and " the dead letter of the Koran sapped all progress among the faithful." This point of view gradually prevailed throughout the Moslem world; but Cordova was the last caliphate to be affected, and in Spain progress and freedom of thought continued longer than elsewhere. Intolerance did not gain a strong foothold; learned scholars flourished; artists still dared to violate the precepts of the Koran. The court of the lions in the Alhambra is the most striking illustration, for to a strict believer " images and pictures representing living creatures are contrary to law." In this respect as in many others some Moslems in Spain refused to be bound by the letter of the Koran and study was not confined so exclusively to theology as elsewhere.

Influence on Christians. The Moslem civilization is of importance to us chiefly for its influence upon our ancestors. The first striking example of this influence was in the days of Charles the Great, to whom Harounal-Rashid sent as presents: an elephant, a magnificent tent, costly silken garments--probably these were robes of honor--perfumes, balsam, two great brass candelabra, and a brass water-clock, constructed with much mechanical ingenuity. This is said to have been the first water-clock in the west of Europe. These gifts are recorded by a contemporary western chronicler and excited his admiration. Some probably served as models for western workmen. The Christians in Spain learned much from their Moslem neighbors and, in turn, passed on some of this knowledge. It is significant that Gerbert was sent to Spain to study mathematics. In southern Italy and Sicily the Normans came into contact with both Moslem and Byzantine civilizations and profited greatly. But it was especially during the crusades that the Christians learned to know the Moslem achievements and derived the greatest amount of knowledge from them, this will be treated later. For the plants which were introduced by the Arabs Europe is especially indebted and many of these have been transplanted to America. Knowledge was also gained, as has already been indicated for some fields. Medicine was long under the sway of the Arab authors. Avicenna, who lived from 980 to I037, had more than a hundred treatises ascribed to him and f rom the twelfth to the seventeenth century was the chief guide for all medical studies in the universities of Europe.

Words from Arabic. One of the surest proofs of the extent of the influence of the Moslem civilization is furnished by the words which the European languages have borrowed from the Arabic. Sometimes a product and name came together; sometimes the new knowledge was designated by the Arabic term. If we omit all words borrowed from the Arabic which were of Greek origin, as e. g. alchemy, alembic, carat, elixir, talisman; or of Persian origin, as e. g. azure, calabash, candy; the English language has taken from the Arabic: alcohol, alcove, algebra, alkali, artichoke, azimuth, benzine, caraway, cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, jasper, lute, mate (in chess), mattress, mohair, myrrh, nitre, ogive, racket (i. e. bat), saffron, senna, sherbet, sofa, sumach, syrup, zenith, zero, and many more. [See Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, Second Series (Oxford, 1891), from whom all of these examples have been taken.]

It was in 712 that Spain, after remaining for nearly three centuries in the possession of the Visigoths, fell under the yoke of the Saracens. For some time past, from a palace at Tandjah (Tangiers), a Mussulman emir had been eying the strip of blue water which alone separated him from that Andalusia which, like the other parts of this world and all of the next, had been promised to the followers of Muhammad. The invasion that ensued was singularly pacific. The enthusiasm which distinguished the youthful period of Muhammadism might account for the conquest which followed, even if we could not assign additional causes--the factions into which the Goths had become divided, the resentment of disappointed pretenders to the throne, the provocations of one Count Julian, whose daughter, seduced by Roderic, the last of the Gothic kings, caused him, it is said, to urge the Moors to come over. It is more surprising that a remnant of this ancient monarchy should not only have preserved its national liberty and name in the northern mountains, but waged for some centuries a successful, and generally an offensive, warfare against the conquerors, till the balance was completely turned in its favor and the Moors were compelled to maintain almost afi obey stinate and protracted a contest for a small portion of the peninsula. But the Arabian monarchs of Cordova found in their success and imagined security a pretext for indolence; even in the cultivation of science and contemplation of the magnificent architecture of their mosques and palaces they forgot their poor but daring enemies in the Asturias; while, according to the nature of despotism, the fruits of wisdom or bravery in one generation were lost in the follies and effeminacy of the next. Their kingdom was dismembered by successful rebels, who formed the states of Toledo, Huesca, Saragossa, and others less eminent; and these, in their own mutual contests, not only relaxed their natural enmity toward the Christian princes, but sometimes sought their alliance.

Be that as it may, of all who had entered Spain, whether Greek, Pheenician, Vandal or Goth, the Moors were the most tolerant. The worship of God was undisturbed. The temples were not only preserved, new ones were built. In every town they entered, presto ! a mosque and a school, and mosques and schools that were entrancing as song. On the banks of the Betis, renamed the Great River, Al-Ouad-al-Kebyr (Guadalquivir), twelve hundred villages bloomed like roses in June. From three hundred thousand filigreed pulpits the glory of Allah, and of Muhammad his prophet, was daily proclaimed.

They were superb fellows, these Moors. In earlier ages the restless Bedouins, their ancestors, were rather fierce, and when the degenerate Sabaism they professed was put aside for the lessons of Muhammad, they were not only fierce, they were fanatic as well. A drop ofblood shed for Allah, equaled, they were taught, whole months of fasting and of prayer. Thereafter, they preached with the scimiter. But in time, that great emollient, they grew less dogmatic. In the ninth century the court of Haroun al Raschid, was a free academy in which all the arts were cultivated and enJoyed. Under the Moors, Cordova surpassed Bagdad.

In the tenth century it was the most beautiful and most civilized city of Europe. Concerning it Burke, in his "History of Spain"--a work to which we are much indebted--writes as follows:

There was the Caliph's Palace of Flowers, his Palace of Contentment, his Palace of Lovers, and, most beautiful of all, the Palace of Damascus. Rich and poor met in the Mezquita, the noblest place of worship then standing in Europe, with its twelve hundred marble columns, and its twenty brazen doors; the vast interior resplendent with porphyry and jasper and many colored precious stones, the walls glittering with harmonious mosaics, the air perfumed with incense, the courtyards leafy with groves of orange trees--showing apples of gold in pictures of silver. Throughout the city, there were fountains, basins, baths, with cold water brought from the neighboring mountains, already carried in the leaden pipes that are the highest triumph of the modern plumber.

But more wonderful even than Cordova itself was the suburb and palace of Az Zahra. lRor five-and-twesty years the Caliph Abdur Rahman devoted to the building of this royal fancy one-third of the revenues of the State; and the work, on his death, was piously continued by his son, who devoted the first fifteen years of his reign to its completion. For forty years ten thousand workmen are said to have toiled day by day, and the record of the refinement as well as the magnificence of the structure, as it approached completion, almost passes belief. It is said that in a moment of exaltation the Caliph gave orders for the removal of the great mountain at whose foot the fairy city was built, as the dark shade of the forests that covered its sides overshadowed the gilded palace of his creation.

Convinced of the impossibility of his enterprise, An Nasir was content that all the oaks and beech trees that grew on the mountain side should be rooted up; and that fig trees, and almonds, and pomegranates should be planted in their place; and thus the very hills and forests of Az Zahra were decked with blossom and beauty.

Travelers from distant lands, men of all ranks and professions, princes, embassadors, merchants, pilgrims, theologians and poets, all agreed that they had never seen in the course of their travels anything that could be compared with Az Zahra, and that no imagination, however fertile, could have formed an idea of its beauties. Of this marvelous creation of Art and Fancy not one stone remains upon another--not a vestige to mark the spot on which it stood; and it is hard to reconstruct from the dry records of Arab historians the fairy edifice of which we are told no words could paint the magnificence. According to these authors the inclosing wall of the palace was four thousand feet in length from east to west, and two thousand two hundred feet from north to south. The greater part of this space wars occupied by gardens, with their marble fountains, kiosks and ornaments of various kinds, not inferior in beauty to the more strictly architectural parts of the building.

Four thousand three hundred columns of the rarer,t and most precious marbles supported the roof of the palace; of these some were brought from Africa, come from Rome, and many were presented by the Emperor at Constantinople to Abdur Rahman. The halls were paved with marble, disposed in a thousand varied patterns. The walls were of the same material;, and ornamented with friezes of the most brilliant colors. The ceilings, constructed of cedar, were enriched with gilding on an azure ground, with damasked work and interlacing designs. Everything, in short, that the wealth and ret sources of the Caliph could command was lavished on this favorite retreat, and all that the art of Constantinople and Bagdad could contribute to aid the taste and executive skill of the Spanish Arabs was enlisted to make it the most perfect work of its age. Did this, palace of Zahra now remain to us, says Mr. Fergusson, we could afford to despise the Alhambra and all the other works, of the declining ages of Moorish art.

It was here that Abdur Rahman an Nasir received Sancho the Fat, and Theuda, queen of Navarre, the envoys from Charles the Simple of P'rance, and the embassadors from the Emperor Constantine at Constantinople. The reception of these imperial visitors is said to have been one of the most magnificent ceremonies of that magnificent court. The orator who had been at first intrusted with the speech of ceremonial greeting, was actually struck dumb by the grandeur of the scene, and his place was taken by a less impressionable rhetorician.

Nor was it only material splendor that was to be found at Cordova. At a time when Christian Europe was steeped in ignorance and barbarism, in superstition and prejudice, every branch of science was studied under the favor and protection of the Ommeyad Caliphs. Medicine, surgery, botany, chemistry, poetry, the arts, philosophy, literature, all flourished at the court and city of Cordova. Agriculture was cultivated with a perfection, both theoretical and practical, which is apparent from the works of contemporary Arab writers. The Silo, so lately introduced into England as a valuable agricultural novelty, is not only the invention of the Arabs, but the very name is Arabic, as is that of the Azequia and of the Noria of modern Spain. Both the second and the third Abdur Rahman were passionately fond of gardening and tree-p]anting; and seeds, roots and cuttings were brought from all parts of the world and acclimatized in the gardens at Cordova. A pomegranate of peculiar excellence, the Safari, which was introduced by the second Abdur Rahman from Damascus, still maintains its superiority, and is known in Spain to the present day as the Granada Zafari.

Thus, in small things as in great, the Arabs of Cordova stood immeasurably above everv other people or any other government in Europe. Yet their influence unhappily was but small. They surpassed, but they did not lead. The very greatness of their superiority rendered their example fruitless. Medieval chivalry, indeed, was largely the result of their influence in Spain. But chivalry as an institution had itself decayed long before a new-born Europe had attained to the material and moral perfection of the great Emirs of Cordova. Their political organization was unadapted to the needs or the aspirations of Western Europe, and contained within itself the elements, not of develops ment, but of decay. Their civilization perished, and left no heirs behind it--and its place knows it no more.

The reign of Hakam II., the son and successor of the great Caliph, was tranquil, prosperous and honorable, the golden age of Arab literature in Spain. The king was above all things a student, living the life almost of a rec]usXe in his splendid retreat at A% Zahra, and concerning himself rather with the collection of books for his celebrated library at Cordova than with the cares of State and the excitements of war. He sent agents to every city in the East to buy rare manuscripts and bring them back to Cordova. When he could not acquire originals he procured copies, and every book was carefully eatalogued and worthily lodged. Hakam not only built libraries, but, unlike many modern collectors, he is said to have read and even to have annotated the books that they contained; but as their number exceeded four hundred thousand, he must have been a remarkably rapid student.

The peaceful disposition of the new Caliph emboldened his Christian neighbors and tributaries to disregard the old treaties and to assert their independence of Cordova. But the armies of Hakam were able to make his rights respected, and the treaties were reaffirmed and observed. Many were the embassies that were received at Cordova from rival Christian chiefs; and Sancho of Leon, Fernan Gonzalez of Castile, Garcia of Navarre, Rodrigo Velasquez of Glallicia, and finally Ordoto the Bad, Pretender to the crown of Leony were all represented at the court of Az Zahra.

The reign of this royal scholar was peaceful and prosperous; but kingly power tends to decline in libraries, and when Hakam ceased to build and to annotate, and his kingdom devolved upon his son, the royal authority passed not into the hands of the young Eisham, who was only nine years of age at the time of his father's death, but into those of the Sultana Sobeyra and of her favorite, Ibn-abu-amir, who is known to later generations by the proud title of Almanzor. [Al Manzor al Allah: "The Victor of God; or, Victorious by the Grace of God."]

Ibn-abu-amir began his career as a poor student at the University of Cordova. Of respectable birth and parentage, filled with noble ambition, born for empire and command, the youth became a court scribe, and, attracting the attention of the all-powerful Sobeyra by the charm of his manner and his nobility of bearing, he soon rose to power and distinction in the palace; and as Master of the Mint, and afterward as Commander of the City Guard, he found means to render himself indispensable, as he had akvays been agreeable, to the harem. Nor was the young courtier less aceeptable to the (:aliph. Intrusted by him on a critical occasion with the supremely difficult mission of comptrolling the expenditure of the army in Africa, where the general-inehief had proved over-prodigal or over-rapacious, Ibn-abuamir acquitted himself with such extraordinary skill and tact that he won the respect and admiration, not only of the Caliph whose treasury he protected, but of the general whose extravagance he checked, and even of the common soldiers of the army, who are not usually drawn to a civilian superintendent, or to a reforming treasury official from headquarters. The expenses were curtailed; but the campaagn was successful, and the victorious general and the yet more victorious Cadi shared on equal terms the honor of a triumphal entry into the capital.

On the death of Hakam, in September, 976, Ibn-abuamir showed no less than his usual tact and vigor in sup pressing a palace intrigue, and placing the young Hisham on the throne of his father. The Caliph was but twelve years of age, and his powerful guardian, supported by the harem, beloved by the people, and feared by the vanquished conspirators, took upon himself the entire administration of the kingdom, repealed some obnoxious taxes, reformed the organization of the army, and sought to confirm and establish his power by a war against his neighbors in the north. The peace which had so long prevailed between Moor and Christian was thus rudely broken, and the Moslem once more carried his arms across the northern frontier. The campaign was eminently successful. Ibn-abu-amir, who contrived not only to vanquish his enemies but to please his friends, became at once the master of the palace and of the army. The inevitable critic was found to say that the victor was a diplomatist and a lawyer rather than a great general; but he was certainly a great leader of men, and if he was at any time unskilled in the conduct of a battle, he owned from the first that higher skill of knowing whom to trust with command. Nor was he less remarkable for his true military virtue of constant clemency to the vanquished.

In two years after the death of Hakam, Almanzor had attained the position of the greatest of the maires du palais of early France, and he ruled all Mohammedan Spain in the name of young Hisham, whose throne he forbore to occupy and whose person was safe in his custody. But if Almanzor was not a dilettante like Abdur Rahman II., nor a collector of MSS. like Hakam, he was no vulgar fighter like the early kings of Leon or of Navarre. A library of books accompanied him in all his campaigns; literature, science, and the arts were munificently patronized at court; a university or high school was established at Cordova, where the great mosque was enlarged for the accommodation of an increasing number of worshipers. Yet in one thing did he show his weakness. He could afford to have no enemies. The idol of the army, the lover of the queen, the prefect of the city, the guardian of the person of the Caliph, Almanzor yet found it necessary to conciliate the theologians; and the theologians were only conciliated by the delivery of the great library of Hakam into the hands of the Ulema. The shelves were ransacked for works on astrology and magic, on natural philosophy, and the forbidden sciences, and after an inquisition as formal and as thorough and probably no more intelligent than that which was conducted by the curate and the barber in the house of Don Quixote, tens of thousands of priceless volumes were publicly committed to the flames.

Nor did Almanzor neglect the more practical or more direct means of maintaining his power. The army was filled with bold recruits from Africa, and renegades from the Christian provinces of the north. The organization and equipment of the regiments was constantly improved; add the troops were ever loyal to their civilian bevefactor Ghalib, the commander-in-chief, having sought bo overthrow the supreme administrator of the kingdom, was vanquished and slain in battle (981). The Caliph was practically a prisoner in his own palace, and was encouraged by his guardian and his friends, both in the harem and in the mosque, to devote himself entirely to a religious life, and abandon the administration of his kingdom to the Hajib, who now, feeling himself entirely secure at home, turned his arms once more against the Christians on the northern frontiers; and it was on his return to Cordova, after his victories at Simancas and Zamora in 981, that he was greeted with the well-known title of Almanzor.

In 984 he compelled Bermudo II. of Leon to become his tributary. In 985 he turned his attention to Catalonia, and after a brief but brilliant campaign he made himself master of Barcelona. Two years later (987), Bermudo having dismissed his Moslem guards and thrown off his allegiance to Cordova, Almanzor marched into the northwest, and after sacking Coimbra, overran Leon, entirely destroyed the capital city, and compelled the Christian king to take refuge in the wild fastnesses of the Asturias.

Meanwhile, at Cordova, the power of Almanzor became year by year more complete. ATictorious in Africa as well as in Spain, this heaven-born general was as skillful in the council chamber as he was in the field. The iron hand was ever clad in a silken glove. His ambition was content with the substance of power, and with the gradual assumption of any external show of supreme authority in the State. In 991 he abandoned the office and title of Hajib to his son, Abdul Malik. In 992 his seal took the place of that of the monarch on all documents of State. In 993 he assumed the royal cognomen of Mowayad. Two years later he arrogated to himself alone the title of Said; and in 996 he ventured a step further, and assumed the title of Malik lCarim, or king.

But in 996 Almanzor was at length confronted by a rival. Sobeyra, the Navarrese Sultana, once his mistress, was now his deadly enemy, and she had determined that the queen, and not the minister, should reign supreme in the palace. Almanzor was to be destroyed. Hakam, a feeble and effeminate youth, was easily won over by the harem, who urged him to show the strength that he was so far from possessing, by espousing the cause of his mother against his guardian. The queen was assured of victory. The treasury was at the disposal of the conspirators. A military rival was secretly summoned from Africa. The minister was banished from the royal presence. The palace was already jubilant.

But the palace reckoned without Almanzor. Making his way into Hakam's chamber, more charming, more persuasive, more resolute than ever, Almanzor prevailed upon the Caliph not only to restore him to his confidence, but to empower him, by a solemn instrument under the royal sign-manual, to assume the government of the kingdom. Sobeyra, defeated but unharmed by her victorious and generous rival, retired to a cloister; and Almanzor, contemptuously leaving to one of his lieutenants the task of vanquishing his subsidized rival in Africa, set forth upon the most memorable of all his many expeditions against C!hristian Spain (July 3, 99;Y).

Making his way, at the head of an army, through Lusitania into far away Gallicia, he took Corunna, and destroyed the great Christian church and city of Santiago de Compostella, the most sacred spot in all Spain, and sent the famous bells which had called so many Christian pilgrims to prayer and praise to be converted into lamps to illuminate the Moslem worshipers in the mosque at Cordova.

Five years later, in 1002, after an uncertain battle, Almanzor died in harness, if not actually in the ranks, bowed down by mortal disease, unhurt by the arm of the enemy. The relief of the Christians at his death was unspeakable; and is well expressed, says Mr. Poole, in the simple comment of the Monkish annalist, "In 1002 died Almanzor, and was buried in Hell."

In force of character, in power of persuasion, in tact, in vigor, in that capacity for command that is only found in noble natures, Almanzor has no rival among the Regents of Spain. His rise is a romance; his power a marvel; his justice a proverb. He was a brilliant financier; a successful favorite; a liberal patron; a stern disciplinarian; a heaven-born courtier; an accomplished general; and no one of the great commanders of Spain, not Gonsalvo de Aguilar himself, was more uniformly successful in the field than this lawyer's clerk of Cordova.

Hisham, in confinement at Az Zahra, was still the titular Caliph of the West, but Almanzor was succeeded as commander-in-chief and virtual ruler of the country by his favorite son, his companion-in-arms, and the hero of an African campaign, Abdul Malik Almudaffar, the Hajib of 991. But the glory of Cordova had departed. Abdul Malik indeed ruled in his father's place for six years. But on his death, in 10029, he was succeeded by his half-brother, Abdur Rahman, who, as the son of a Christian princess, was mistrusted both by the palace and by the people; and the country became a prey to anarchy.

Cordova was sacked. The Caliph was imprisoned; rebellions, poisonings, crucifixions, civil war, bigotry and skepticism, the insolence of wealth, the insolence of power, a Mahdi and a Wahdi, Christian alliance, Berber domination, Slav mutineers5 African interference, puppet princes, all these things vexed the Spanish BIoslems for thirty disastrous years; while a number of weak but independent sovereignties arose on the ruins of the great Caliphate of the West.

The confused annals of the last thirty years of the rule of the Ommeyades are mere records of blood and of shame, a pitiful story of departed greatness.

On the death of Hisham II., the Romulus Augustulus of Imperial Cordova, Moslem Spain was divided into a number of petty kingdoms, Malaga, Algeciras, Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Badajoz, Saragossa, the Balearic Islands, Valencia, Murcia, Almeria, and Granada. And each of these cities and kingdoms made unceasing war one upon another.

From the death of Hisham, if not from the death of Almanzor, the center of interest in the history of Spain is shifted from Cordova to Castile.