THE CRUSADES: THE FIRST EXPANSION OF THE WEST
[From Dana Carleton Munro, The Middle Ages, 395-1272 (New York: The Century Company, 1921), pp. 242-255]
Appeal of Alexius. The investiture struggle was still dragging on, but in 1095. Urban II held a strong position. Henry IV of Germany and the anti-pope whom he had set up were both virtually powerless; the other monarchs had recognized Urban as the rightful pope. He had summoned a council to meet at Piacenza on March 1 to consider reforms, and thither came, we are told, four thousand of the clergy and thirty thousand of the laity. In addition, an embassy from Alexius Comnenus was present to beg that the pope and all Christians would aid the emperor against the pagans. Urban urged this, and many are said to have promised to go to the assistance of Alexius. This appeal was destined to result in a vast undertaking of which Alexius had never dreamed. Urban grasped the opportunity to place himself at the head of a movement which, under his leadership, would bring prestige to the papacy, and might restore unity to the Church. He knew that the conditions in the west were ripe for such a project.
Love of Fighting. It was a period of unrest. Wars and conquests had been undertaken, and to gain followers the leaders had offered great inducements. In order to obtain troops for the conquest of England, William had advertised widely and had promised rewards contingent upon his success. Many a needy adventurer acquired rich holdings in England; many a dispossessed Englishman sought to retrieve his fortunes by service in the Varangian Guard at Constantinople. In southern Italy and Sicily Norman adventurers had conquered the Saracens and built up great fiefs. Not content with what he had already acquired Robert Guiscard had attempted the conquest of the Byzantine Empire. In Spain the Christians in the north were steadily pressing upon the Moslems, and occasionally winning from them a town with the surrounding country; this was the period in which the Cid flourished. In Germany and northern Italy the investiture struggle with its long-continued war brought misery to many, but gave to a few the opportunity for sudden promotion and unexpected fortune. In addition to these large enterprises, wars between the feudal lords were constant. Some fought to aggrandize themselves at the expense of their neighbors; others fought to avenge injuries; in fact, fighting was for many the best loved sport, and any pretext was good. But the zest for combat was keenest when there was likelihood of obtaining booty in some form.
Asceticism. The spirit of unrest also manifested itself in a strong tendency toward asceticism. This had always been an ingredient of medieval Christianity, and it now became more marked than ever. Men were much interested in the life after death, and believed that a life of suffering on earth would profit them in the hereafter. With the movement toward reformation of the Church in the eleventh century asceticism became much more pronounced. Individuals were lauded for their self-denial and self-torture. Legends of the saints dwelt lovingly upon marvelous incidents of mortification of the flesh. Sinners were urged to atone for their past misdeeds by a life of self-abnegation, and many entered monasteries. New monastic orders, embodying stricter discipline and greater asceticism, were founded toward the close of the eleventh and in the beginning of the twelfth century, androon enrolled a great number of converts. Religious leaders like Peter Damiani and popes like Gregory VII lent their influence to the increase in the practice of asceticism. The people, as a rule, admired those who were noted for extreme asceticism, and themselves submitted to fasting and other forms of privation to atone for their sins and to insure salvation in the next world. One of the reforms of the Council of Piacenza was the regulation of the "fasts of the four seasons." It is apparent that many men were disturbed over their spiritual condition and were ready to undertake some pious task, even if it involved a change in their life, so great was their unrest and dissatisfaction with their condition.
Pilgrimages. Pilgrimages were especially favored as a form of penance. Sometimes the goal was the shrine of some local saint; for serious offenses the guilty might be commanded to go to Rome; but the supreme penance for the most heinous crimes, such as incest, the burning of a church, or the infraction of the truce of God, was a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Ever since Helena, the mother of Constantine, had discovered the true cross, that city had been the great goal for pilgrims. Accounts of the journey thither were eagerly treasured and the number of pilgrims increased. Of the pilgrimages to Jerusalem that have been recorded there were six in the eighth century, twelve in the ninth, sixteen in the tenth, and one hundred and seventeen in the eleventh, before the beginning of the crusades. Moreover, in this last century greater vogue was given to this form of penance by the example of the German bishops who, with seven thousand followers, are said to have set out for Jerusalem in 1065, and by the pilgrimages of nobles, as, for example, Fulk Nerra, count of Anjou, who made the pilgrimage at least three times, or the father of William the Conqueror, Duke Robert of Normandy. The latter set out bare-footed on the long journey. When he had to pass through a city, he sent his followers ahead so that he might himself, unprotected, suffer insults from those who were ignorant of his station. When a gatekeeper struck him, he received the blow cheerfully, as a favor from heaven; "This stroke is dearer to me than the best city of my dukedom." Accounts of such pilgrimages did much to enhance the interest in the land where Christ lived, and the desire to "worship where His feet have stood."
Council of Clermont. Elsewhere attention will be called to other ways in which the unrest asserted itself; e. g., in the increased activity of merchants, in the journeyings of students to centers of learning, in the peasants' desire to better their lot. Pope Urban was conscious of these conditions, and laid his plans carefully for the initiation of a movement that should free the Holy Land from the hands of the pagans; for his purpose had grown to embrace much more than a mere proj ect to aid Alexius. He had consulted with leaders in southern France, and had called a council to meet at Clermont in Auvergne. There no building could hold the cl°eunndOlnotr throngs whom the rumor of some great undertaking had brought together. There, in the open air, on November 25, 1095, Urban delivered the most effective oration recorded in history.
Speech of Urban. The pope began by praising the valor of the Franks and re- sPrbeacnhor calling to them the great deeds of their ancestors. Then he spoke of the necessity of aiding their brethren in the East, of the appeals for help that had come so frequently because of the victorious advance of the Turks. He dwelt at length upon the sufferings that were inflicted upon the Christians and upon the desecration of the holy places. He gave examples of cruelty, and aroused deep emotion in his hearers by pointing out the ma1ner in which the places they held most sacred were being defiled. Then emphasizing the special sanctity of Jerusalem, he declared that this was God's own work, that, for all who participated, the journey itself would take the place of all other penance. He urged them to engage in righteous warfare instead of wasting their strength and imperiling their souls by civil strife at home. He pointed out the evil conditions in France which reduced many to starvation, and compared with this the opportunity for acquiring homes in a land flowing with milk and honey, and l for securing at the same time eternal rewards. He urged them fl not to let any ties prevent them from entering upon this holy undertaking in which they would march with Christ as their leader. This speech aroused the utmost enthusiasm. Thousands pressed forward to take the cross. Urban seems to have been surprised at his own success, and found it necessary to attempt to check the excessive enthusiasm by ordering that women should not go without the consent of their husbands, that priests and monks should not join the movement without the approbation of their superiors, and that old men and children should remain at home. But he was powerless to stay the flood that he had set in motion. When ambassadors arrived on the following day to say that Raymond of Toulouse, the most powerful count in France, had taken the cross, success seemed assured.
Peter the Hermit. After Clermont, Urban preached the crusade in other places, and his example was followed by many. The most successful was Peter the Hermit, to whom the whole movement was formerly attributed. It has been proved that Peter had never been in Jerusalem and that his preaching began only after the Council of Clermont. But this in no way lessens his actual achievement. He went through a large part of France, mounted upon a mule, and preaching wherever he could find an audience. His arms and feet were bare; he ate sparingly of the food that was set before him; he preached repentance; and he soon came to be regarded popularly as a saint. "Even the hairs were snatched from his mule to be preserved as relics." Throngs of people surrounded him, and by the time he reached Cologne, in March, 1096, thousands had determined to follow him on his crusade.
The First Bands. The pope had set August 15, 1096, as the date for departure, but the people whom Peter had aroused were impatient to start. Two bands, each numbering some thousands, set out in the spring and marched across Germany, through Hungary and Bulgaria, and down to Constantinople. The first had a remarkably successful march, and aroused little hostility; the second, which Peter led, was not so orderly, and became involved in fighting with the Bulgarians, so that many pilgrims were killed or enslaved. When the bands arrived at Constantinople, the emperor advised them to remain until the main army came up, as the danger would be great if they went into the enemy's country. Unfortunately, some were unruly and proved themselves undesirable visitors; it is said that some even stole lead from the roof of a church in order to sell it. Alexius soon wished to be rid of them, and furnished vessels to convey them across the Hellespont. There, after a few weeks, they aroused the wrath of the Turks by their plundering expeditions and were exterminated. Other expeditions followed later under the leadership of adventurers. Some plundered the Jews. All were unruly, and no one of them succeeded in reaching Constantinople. Because of the ill deeds of these later bands and the lack of success of Peter, it has been the habit to speak contemptuously of the "peasants' crusade," a misleading name under which all these first movements have been grouped.
In the summer and autumn of 1096 the real hosts began their march. Count Raymond of Toulouse is said to have had one hundred thousand men. He is described by a contemporary as being "as fanatical as a monk and as land-greedy as a Norman." With him went Bishop Adhemar of Puy, who had been the first to take the cross at the Council at Clermont and had been made the papal legate. He is described by the same contemporary as
Facilis ad omne bonum
Et gracilis ad equitandum.
He was to be the means of maintaining peace in the army. From Flanders and Lorraine went Godfrey of Bouillon, an honest man and a hard fighter. His position later at the head of the government in the holy city won for him the great prestige, and led many to ascribe to him the leadership of the whole movement. With him went his brothers Eustace and Baldwin and the latter's wife From Normandy went Duke Robert, able, but rash and improvident. In order to acquire means for his journey he had pledged his duchy to his brother for ten thousand marks; the latter secured twice this amount from the first year's incom. Also from the north of France went Hugh the Great, the brother of the king, who surrounded himself with a number of other tall knights, all clad in shining armor. From central France went Stephen of Blois, who is said to have been the wealthiest man who took part in the movement. He had married the daughter of the king of England, and is said to have owned a castle for each day in the yt ar. From southern Italy went the Norman Bohemond and his kinsman Tancred. Bohemond was the shrewdest of all the leaders. Tancred was unscrupulous and not at all the ideal hero he was later considered to have been.
The Start. These were the chief leaders, and around them gathered all who chose to take part in the movement. Men came from the uttermost islands, and indicated by signs their desire to take part in the crusade. All were gladly received, and the armies grew constantly as they proceeded on their way. A vivid account has ]been left of their start, written by one of the participants: "Then the husband announced to his wife the exact time of his return, assuring her that if he lived he would return to his country and to her at the end of three years. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and promised to come back to her. But the wife, who feared that she would never see him again, overcome with grief, was unable to stand, fell almost lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear one whom she was losing in life, as if he were already dead. He then, as if he had no pity--and nevertheless he was filled with pity--and was not moved by the lamentations of his wife or children or friends--and yet he was secretly moved--departed with mind firmly set upon his purpose. The sadness was for those who remained, the joy for those who departed. What more can we say? 'This is the Lord's doing; it is marvelous in our eyes.'"
The March. Before they set out the leaders made their plans to meet in Constantinople. They went by different routes. Godfrey followed the so-called road of Charles the Great up the Rhine, through southern Germany, then through Hungary and Bulgaria, to the Greek empire. Count Raymond marched through northern Italy, around the head of the Adriatic, and across Greece. Robert of Normandy, Robert of Flanders, Hugh the Great, and Bohemond all crossed over from Italy to Greece by vessels, but at different times. All made their march successfully. Godfrey met with little hindrance until, believing that the Greek emperor had proved treacherous, he began to make reprisals by plundering. Count Raymond had some difficulty among the mountaineers, and was compelled to terrify them into submission by his cruelty His chronicler tells us that the army was greatly annoyed by the fog, which was so thick that it could be cut with a knife. Bohemond had no trouble in maintaining order as long as he was with his army.
Alexius and the Leaders. The real difficulties came from the emperor's attitude. He had desired aid, but had not expected to have any such armies turned loose upon his empire. Gibbon has compared his plight to that of the "shepherd who was ruined by the accomplishment of his own wishes: he had prayed for water; the Ganges was turned into his grounds, and his cottage was swept away by the inundation." Such was the fate that Alexius feared. He had formerly been at war with Bohemond and his father Robert. He feared now that the crusaders would attempt to seize his capital. At the same time he wished to make use of them. Consequently he endeavored by cunning, by violence, or by bribery to win each individual over to his cause. l lugh the Great was the first to reach the boundaries of the Greek empire. He had previously sent a message to the emperor which the latter's daughter, Anna Comnena, says was very insolent. The emperor was waiting for his coming; and when the vessel in which Hugh was journeying was thrown upon the shore and wrecked, Hugh was received by the emperor's official and conducted to Constantinople. But he was not entirely free. The news that Hugh was in prison came to Godfrey and caused him to begin his plundering. Finally the emperor succeeded in making terms with both Hugh and Godfrey, and assured himself of their alliance. Bohemond was easily won over by bribery. Raymond refused to take an oath to the emperor, but finally consented to a modified form, because of his intense hatred of Bohemond, a hatred that he shared with Alexius. All of the leaders were finally brought to take an oath that if they should conquer cities that had once belonged to the Greek empire, they would restore these to the emperor, and the emperor in turn promised that he would aid them in their crusade.
Capture of Nicæa. The first military undertaking was against the city of Nicæa, where all the army finally gathered in the summer of 1097. The crusaders invested the city, and, with the aid of boats that were sent overland by the emperor, brought it to the point of surrender. Just as the crusaders were rejoicing that they would soon be sacking the city and wreaking their will upon the inhabitants, they saw the emperor's flag waving from a city tower. The inhabitants had preferred to surrender to him rather than to suffer the barbarities of a sack. The emperor gave money freely to the leaders, and, as a chronicler derisively described it, some brass coins to the common people. Consequently they departed, "some with kindly feelings and others with different emotions. "Stephen of Blois wrote home exultingly to his wife that the emperor had given him more money than he got with her dowry.
March to Antioch. The march from Nicæa to Antioch proved long and dangerous. On the 4th of July they fought and eventually won the battle of Forylaeum; but victory was snatched from defeat only by the heroism of the leaders. On the march through the mountains they suffered from heat and thirst, so that many died. Their beasts of burden perished, and dogs were pressed into the service to carry the packs. They made a long delay among the Armenians in order to secure aid from the latter. Baldwin left the army in order to secure Edessa. Finally, late in the year 1098, the others reached the great city of Antioch.
The Capture of Antioch. The capture of this city was an arduous task, for they were not able to invest it completely. Moreover, the discipline was bad . and the army was improvident. In the first week of the siege they ate up most of their provisions and wasted their food in riotous living. They then repented humbly for their sins, sent away the evil women from the army, and sought the aid Of the Lord. There seemed little chance of their eventual success; but Bohemond was planning to obtain the city, which he coveted for a principality. He persuaded the other leaders to agree that whoever captured it should have it. He had bribed an Armenian who had command of one of the towers, so that when the agreement was reached the traitor let down a rope ladder, and Bohemond and his men were soon on the city walls. They opened the gates, and Antioch was captured
The Holy Lance. The army, now that they had ample provisions in the city devoted the first few days to feasting and excesses. They did not even attempt to capture the citadel, which was still held by the Turks. When Kerbogha appeared and invested the city, they were caught. They soon exhausted their provisions, and famine set in. Peter the Hermit and others attempted to run away by letting themselves down from the city walls by ropes. They were called contemptuously the "rope-dancers." Peter was captured and brought back; Stephen of Blois made good his escape and, going northward, met the Greek emperor, who was hastening down with an army. When Alexius learned the desperate position the crusaders were in, he retreated and left them to their fate. During this time a certain peasant, Peter Bartholomew, had a vision in which Christ appeared to him and told him that the holy lance was buried in a church in Antioch. This lance was the one that had pierced the Saviour's side as He hung upon the cross. The peasant went first to Bishop Adhemar, who would not believe his story. Then he went to Count Raymond who was credulous. They dug in the appointed place, and at dusk, when only a few were present, the lance was produced by the man who had had the vision. Most of the leaders seem to have felt that the whole thing was a fraud; but after due deliberation they decided that it was worth while to use the lance to arouse enthusiasm. Consequently they marched out against the enemy, Bishop Adhemar bearing the holy lance. They surprised and routed Kerbogha and almost annihilated his army.
Bohemond was left in charge of the city, and the army proceeded to take possession of other places. "Each one thought only of his own advantage, and no one cared for the common good. Each leader was intent only upon what he might secure for himself, and there was no zeal for going to Jerusalem. niSutes broke out, and the holy lance formed the pretext for many. Count Raymond still believed in it; but the other leaders, after having used it in their time of need, were now skeptical. Bishop Adhemar had died, and there was no one to keep peace. Finally the man who had had the vision was compelled to undergo the ordeal by fire in order to prove his assertions. Raymond's chaplain who believed in the genuineness of the lance gives the following account of the ordeal. "The leaders and the people to the number of fifty thousand came together; the priests were there also with bare feet, clothed in ecclesiastical garments. The invocation was made: ' If Omnipotent God has spoken to this man face to face, and the blessed Andrew has shown him our Lord's lance while he was keeping his vigil, let him go through the fire unharmed. But if it is false, let him be burned, together with the lance which he is to carry in his hand. And all responded on bended knees, ' Amen. ' The fire was growing so hot that the flames shot up thirty cubits high into the air, and scarcely any one dared approach it. Then Peter Bartholomew, clothed only in his tunic and kneeling before the bishop of Albar called God to witness that he had seen Him face to face on the cross, and that he had heard from Him those words above written.... Then, when the bishop had placed the lance in his hand, he kneeled and made the sign of the cross, and entered the fire with the lance, firm and unterrified. For an instant's time he paused in the midst of the flames, and then by the grace of God passed through.... But when Peter emerged from the fire so that neither his tunic was burned nor even the thin cloth with which the lance was wrapped up had shown any sign of damage, the whole people received him after he had made over them the sign of the cross with the lance in his hand, and cried, God aid use ' All the people, I say, threw themselves upon him and dragged him to the ground and trampled on him, each one wishing to get a piece of his garment, and each thinking him near some one else. And so he received three or four wounds in the legs, where the flesh was torn away, his back was injured and his sides bruised. Peter had died on the spot, as we believe, had not Raymond Pelet, a brave and noble soldier, broken through the wild crowd with a band of friends and rescued him at the peril of their lives.... After this Peter died in peace at the hour appointed to him by God, and journeyed to the Lord; and he was buried in the place where he had carried the lance of the Lord through the fire. "
Capture of Jerusalem. Finally Raymond was compelled to lead his followers to Jerusalem, for they threatened to go without him if he did not do so Some of the other leaders accompanied him; but Stephen had gone home, Bohemond was in Antioch, and Baldwin in Edessa. The army, which was said to number twenty thousand, arrived before Jerusalem on June 7, 1099. At first they hoped that the walls of Jerusalem would fall as the walls of Jericho had done, and they marched barefoot around the city, blowing their horns. Finally, by desperate valor, they succeeded in storming the city, which fell into their hands on July 15. They proceeded to make an indiscriminate massacre of the inhabitants--all ages and both sexes. The princes wrote home exultingly to the pope: "And if you desire to know what was done with the enemy who were found there, know that in Solomon's Porch and in his temple our men rode in the blood of the Saracens up to the knees of their horses. "
Election of Godfrey. Having captured the city, the question of its disposal was uppermost. The members of the clergy insisted that no ruler ought to be chosen for the holy city, but that it should be Church property. As the papal legate had died and no one had been appointed in hit place, the clergy had no leader, and their wishes were not heeded One week after the capture of the city the nobles met to choose a ruler. Raymond was offered the kingship but declined, saying that he was unwilling to wear a crown of gold where our Saviour had worn a crown of thorns. Finally Godfrey was chosen with the title "baron and defender of the Holy Sepulcher. "In this way a conflict between the clerical and lay parties was avoided.
King Baldwin. When Godfrey died the following summer, the patriarch attempted to call in Bohemond as his successor; but Bohemond had just been taken prisoner by the Moslems. Since on his death-bed Godfrey had designated his brother as his heir, messengers were sent by Godfrey's party to Baldwin, and he, "grieving somewhat at his brother's death, but rejoicing much more over the inheritance, "set out for Jerusalem. At first he was not recognized as king by the patriarch; but he showed himself a man of real ability, and on Christmas day, 1100, he was crowned. The coronation took place not in Jerusalem but at Bethlehem, and it was not until the trouble with the patriarch had ended that Baldwin took the title "king of Jerusalem." As the inhabitants had been massacred when the city had been captured, the new rulers found it necessary to gain the good will of the natives in order to repopulate it. Baldwin offered privileges and freedom of trade to all without distinction of race or creed. Men who themselves came from different nations were forced to live in close association with the natives, Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, Saracens and others.
Geographical Conditions. This was due to the nature of the country. The greatest length of the Christian holdings at any time, from the extreme north in Edessa to the extreme southern point, was somewhat more than five hundred miles; the breadth was in many places less than fifty miles. The country may be divided into four zones. ical On the border of the Mediterranean there is in some places a sandy plain a few miles in width; in other places the sea beats against the rocky coast. To the eastward is a mountainous country with many springs and offering some good land for farming. Beyond the mountains is the valley of the Jordan, a depressed trough, a land of great fertility. To the eastward of this, mountains and deserts, on the slopes of the mountains there were occasionally villages and some important places. The Christians never succeeded in conquering all of this country. The Mohammedans always held strongholds in the mountains, and in addition some important cities, like Damascus. It was only very gradually that the seaports were captured by the Christians. There was no stronghold of the Christians that was not within a day's ride of the enemy; consequently the two peoples were always face to face.
Friendly Relations. Their forced association caused a great change in the feelings of the Christians. When they had started out on the crusade they had felt contempt for the Mohammedans; they had been led to believe that the latter were cowards. In their first battles each learned to respect the other, and thus the way was prepared for more intimate relations. In their constant strife with one another the Mohammedans welcomed assistance from the Christians. The Christians almost as soon as they entered Syria began to quarrel among themselves, and very soon they were seeking aid from the infidels against men of their own religion. Consequently alliances between Franks and Mohammedans were frequent. Both were passionately devoted to hunting, but realized the danger from their neighbors unless some mutual understanding could be reached. Very soon hunting agreements were entered into by antagonists who lived near each other, so that when either party was hunting he might be free from danger of attack. The Franks had taken with them to the Holy Land horses, hawks, and dogs. Very soon enthusiastic sportsmen among both peoples were comparing the respective merits of their animals and making trades. Safe conducts were exchanged and were honored by both parties. In this way many associations came about, and close friendships were formed between the adherents of the rival religions.
Employment of Natives. The Franks who occupied the country were relatively few in number, and they were engaged in the early years in defending their conquests or in attempting the reduction of other strongholds. They had no opportunity to cultivate the land or to do the necessary building of fortresses and churches. For this they employed native workmen, without regard to race or creed. They had to treat these workmen well in order to retain their services because it was easy for the laborers to leave at any time and escape from the power of the Franks. They employed native overseers and intrusted authority to them. In the second half of the century an Arab traveler bemoaned the fact that his coreligionists preferred to work for the Franks because they received better treatment and more exact justice
Adoption of New Customs. Such associations with the natives led to the adoption of new customs by the men from the West. First of all, they adopted the clothing suitable to the country, because it was more comfortable and frequently more handsome than their own. In food they acquired new tastes, and especially learned to need sugar and spices. They preferred Oriental houses, with their cool courts and running water, to anything they had known at home. As they became better acquainted with the natives they began to call on them for assistance in lines where they felt the superiority of the Mohammedans. In medicine, for example, they soon learned to prefer the Mohammedan doctors, who treated patients by dieting and medicine, in place of the Christian practitioners, who were too apt to use the knife or the ax in every emergency. But the most striking illustration of the effect of the association between the different races is to be found in some changes that took place in their religious ideas. A wonder-working virgin was worshiped by Christians, Mohammedans, and Jews. Certain shrines were held holy by everybody. Moslems said their prayers in Christian chapels. The intense feeling against heresy and schism, which was so strong in the West, was almost non-existent among the Franks in the East; different sects worshiped in the same church; some bishops of the Roman Church actually consecrated a bishop of a heretical sect.
Division among Christians. The associations and friendly relations were caused in part by the weakness of both Christians and infidels. Of the former the number who remained in the Holy Land after the first crusade was very small, and their allegiance was divided among several overlords who were seldom in friendly cooperation. But the Turks were equally divided for more than a generation. Con sequently the first two kings were able to conquer almost all alhnong the seaports and to extend the kingdom. But in order to secure a fleet to reduce a seaport the king had to hire the aid of one of the Italian cities- thus Arsuf and Cæsarea were conquered in 1101 by the aid of the Genoese. who had bargained for a third of the booty and a quarter in the city to be under their administration. Similar terms were demanded and obtained by the Pisans and Venetians when they furnished aid, so that parts of each coast city were in the hands of the Italians and not under the king's authority. Moreover, the interests of the Italians, when they had secured the trading centers, were usually in the maintenance of peace, not in the continuance of the conquests. The king never had a large enough army to attempt conquests in the interior except when bands of pilgrims came for a few months, and over such pilgrims he had no authority. The members of the two military orders, the Templars and the Hospitalers, whose rise will be discussed elsewhere, were a great aid when they cooperated; but they were independent of the king, and in time came to be bitter rivals of each other, seldom joining loyally in any enterprise. Lastly, except for brief periods, the rulers of the four states--the kingdom of Jerusalem, the principality of Antioch, the county of Edessa, and the county of Tripoli--were never united for the common cause.
Fall of Edessa. Toward the middle of the twelfth century the Moslems in Syria and the country to the northeast became united under one ruler, Imad-ed-din Zangi. In 1127 he was made governor of Mosul, on the Tigris. He began his conquests by reducing the rival Mohammedan rulers to the east of the Euphrates and in northern Syria, capturing Aleppo and Hamah. Fortunately for the Christians, he was not able to follow up his successes, as renewed warfare against other Mohammedans occupied his energies for about fourteen years. Finally, in 1144, he was free to attempt the conquest of Edessa. This city was strongly fortified, but poorly defended, and was captured after a siege of only four weeks, in 1144.
The Second Crusade. The news of the fall of Edessa brought about a renewed interest in the cause of the Holy Land. Louis VII of France took the cross and Bernard of Clairvaux was instructed by the pope to preach a crusade. He succeeded in winning over Conrad III of Germany, who described his own conversion as "a miracle of miracles." The two armies started out in 1147, the Germans preceding the French. Conrad and his followers were led astray, and all but the knights were almost annihilated by the Turks in Asia Minor. This crusade accomplished nothing The two kings finally reached Jerusalem, where they conferred with the leaders and decided to attack Damascus. This great and wealthy city had never been captured by the Christians, but its inhabitants had usually paid tribute. Now the army, made up of the French and German knights, of the Templars and Hospitalers, and of the followers of the king of Jerusalem, camped before the city on a very favorable site. But there were traitors among the Christians who persuaded the kings that it would be better to go around to the other side of the city and make the attack from there. The army moved from its advantageous position, only to find the new location destitute of water and entirely unsuitable. When they attempted to return to their old position they found it occupied by the enemy, and there was nothing for them to do Put to abandon the siege. There were lengthy recriminations, and finally the French and German kings went home in disgust. After this fiasco it was long difficult to arouse any enthusiasm in the West for aiding the Christians in the Holy Land.
Conditions in the Kingdom. All the early kings of Jerusalem, Baldwin I, 1100-1118, Baldwin II, 1118-1131, and Fulk, 1131-1143, had been born in the West and had been mature men when they had gone to the Holy Land. The succeeding kings were born there, and did not have the vigor of the adventurers from the West. Too often they followed an unwise policy with regard to Mohammedan affairs. Apparently they did not realize the danger inherent in the growing union among the Moslems. Nureddin had succeeded Zangi and had added Damascus to his dominions. He was an abler man than his father. After his death in 1174, Saladin, who had already conquered Egypt, which had been weakened by war with Jerusalem, gradually gained power over the Moslems in the north, and wrested some fortresses from the Christians. In the meantime the Christians, while fighting bravely on some occasions, were troubled by internal divisions. Those who wished to live in peace with the Mohammedans, so that trade might flourish were numerous. Those who loved fighting were not in accord with one another. The king had comparatively little authority. Still worse was the position when Baldwin V was crowned king. He was only a child, and the rival nobles contended for power When he died in 1186 Guy of Lusignan was crowned king, and this alienated the leader of the peace party, Count Raymond of Tripoli, who as regent had just made a truce with Saladin.
Reginald of Chatillon. This truce was broken by Reginald of Chatillon. He was an adventurer who had gone out from Europe to seek his fortune. Almost immediately upon his arrival in Syria he won the love of the heiress of Antioch, and by marrying her became the lord of that city. He quarreled bitterly with the patriarch of Antioch, and after the death of his wife was obliged to leave. He spent several years as a captive of the Saracens, and after his releasehad been placed in command of the fortress of Crac, which overlooked one of the main caravan routes. In spite of the truce between the Christians and the Mohammedans, when a rich caravan passed beneath the walls of his castle Reginald was unable to restrain his greed. He fell upon the caravan and plundered it. It has been stated that a sister of Saladin was in this caravan. Whether this is true or not, Saladin felt that there was no possibility of preserving peace with the Christians, and at once set out to inflict chastisement.
Fall of Jerualem. In the face of the danger the Christians united for the common defense. But Count Raymond of Tripoli had long been at var iance with the king and with the grand-master of the Templars, and was trusted by neither. He was supposed to be in alliance with Saladin, with whom he was on terms of good friendship. The result was that the sound advice of Raymond was neglected and the Christians rashly took up an unfavorable position for battle and invited the Saracen attack. The battle of Hattin, which followed, was the destruction of the Christian cause. The king and his leaders, including Reginald, fell into the hands of Saladin. Reginald and the Templars were put to death; the others were spared. Then Saladin in a rapid campaign captured almost all of the strongholds of the Christians, most of them making no real defense. Finally he captured the city of Jerusalem itself. This was in 1187, when the city had been in the hands of the Christians about eighty-eight years.
[From Dana Carleton Munro, The Middle Ages, 395-1272 (New York: The Century Company, 1921), pp. 300-310]
The Third Crusade: Frederic Barbarossa. The news of the fall of Jerusalem made a profound impression throughout western Europe. Warring kings made peace and took the cross; the most eminent were Henry II of England and his son Richard, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederic Barbarossa of Germany. The last was the first to start, in May, 1189. He made careful regulations, so that the army might be thoroughly efficient; ordering that no poor man should take part, that no women should accompany the host except laundresses, and that discipline should be maintained. Before setting out he attempted to make alliances with the Greek emperor and with the sultan of Iconium. The latter was the great rival of Saladin, and held an important position to the north. In the meantime the Greek emperor had entered into an alliance with Saladin. Consequently each emperor was allied with a Mohammedan power. But the Greek emperor was unable to do anything to check Frederic, who with his army marched overland to Constantinople without any serious difficulties. He then crossed into Asia Minor and advanced successfully to the brook Chalycadnus in Seleucia where he was drowned through the force or the chill of the water. Almost all of his followers returned home in order to look after their own interests; only a small number proceeded on their expedition.
Philip and Richard. In the meantime war had broken out again between Henry II and Philip Augustus, who was aided by Richard. The death of Henry led to peace, and in 1190 Philip and Richard set out on the crusade. At first the two kings were friendly, but they quarreled while they were in Sicily, and became bitter enemies. Philip sailed for Acre, which the Christians were besieging; Richard proceeded leisurely, stopping to capture Cyprus and to get married before going to Acre.
Siege of Acre. The siege of this city had been going on for months. Virtually all the forces in the Holy Land, with the remnant of Frederic Barbarossa's army and the crusaders led by the king of France, were engaged in it. Saladin was watching the Christian army and was attempting to rescue Acre. When Richard arrived, there was great joy in the Christian camp. But the siege dragged both Arab and Christian, have left accounts of many incidents, so that this crusade has come to be the theme of romance. The enmity of Philip and Richard was constant, and soon extended to their respective followers. Conditions became so bad that it was not safe to lead both the English and the French forces into action at the same time, lest they might turn their weapons against each other. Richard entered into communication with Saladin, and they exchanged presents, although they never met. During the progress of the siege there were many picturesque incidents. Both parties watched eagerly the achievements of the mangonels. Richard had taken with him from Sicily three shiploads of flintstones for use in his machines; one of these stones, which is said to have killed thirteen of the men of Acre, was carefully saved and taken to Saladin as a curiosity. In order to carry on communication with the people in the city, Saladin employed expert swimmers, and the Christians attempted to prevent this be stretching out huge nets. One of the messengers was drowned while attempting to make the passage; but as his dead body was washed ashore at Acre, and the inhabitants obtained the money that had been sent them, they said that this man paid his debts even after death. The Christians were eager to tear down the defensive walls of the city, and Richard offered large pay for every stone that was dislodged; consequently his followers achieved great deeds of valor in their attempts to tear the stones from the wall. Even the women engaged eagerly in the work of the siege. One of them who was carrying material to fill the moat was fatally wounded by a shot from the wall. She begged that her body might be thrown into the moat, so that she might assist even after death. Finally the siege, which had begun on August 27, 1189, came to an end with the capture of the city on July 12, 1191.
Teutonic Order. During the progress of the siege some Germans had made awnings from the sails, and had turned their vessels into hospitals to care for the wounded. From this humble beginning, which was highly admired, grew the great Teutonic Order. But this order, unlike the knights of the Temple and the Hospital, was to achieve its great distinction in the West, in its contest with the heathen Wends and Prussians.
Fate of Captives. Two of the conditions of the surrender had been the payment of a huge ransom and the restoration of the true cross, which had been captured by Saladin at Jerusalem. The ransom was not paid at the appointed time; consequently Richard ordered the twenty-seven hundred captives whom he had held as a guaranty to be led out and slaughtered in cold blood. This act, and the favorable comments made upon it by Christian writers, reveal the barbarism of the western knights. It was in great contrast with the action of Saladin when he had conquered Jerusalem. He too had stipulated for a ransom, and had laid a price upon the head of each Christian in the city. The Christians raised all the money they could, but were unable to pay the necessary sum. Then Saphadin, the brother of Saladin, came to the latter and begged him for a thousand captives. These were given to him, and he set them free. Next the Christian patriarch came, begging for some captives; these were granted to him, and he set them free. Saladin said, "My brother and the patriarch have made their alms; now it is my turn," and he set all the remaining captives free without ransom. These various deeds are eloquent of the difference in civilization between the Saracens and the Franks.
Peace Made. The remainder of the crusade may be passed over very briefly. Philip returned home almost at once. Richard stayed for some time, making indecisive marches, fighting bravely, but accomplishing nothing. The Arabs learned to respect his valor very highly, and it is said that he became a kind of "bogey-man" in proverbial literature: when an Arab horse shied without cause, the Arab spoke of his seeing Richard in the bush; when a babe cried, the Arab mother threatened him with King Richard. Finally Saladin took the offensive, and Richard, who was badly needed at home, found it expedient to make peace. He secured fairly good terms, as Saladin also was anxious for peace. On September 1, 1192, it was arranged that Christian pilgrims should enter the city of Jerusalem freely, and other provisions were made that were favorable to the Christians; but on the whole . the crusade had been without result, except for the capture of Acre.
Richard's Ransom. On his return Richard was seized and held as a prisoner by the arch-duke of Austria, whom he had angered at the siege of Acre. The emperor Henry VI of Germany compelled the arch-duke to hand over to him the illustrious prisoner. Richard had to remain in prison for many months, and was released only after he had done homage to Henry, and had promised to pay the enormous ransom of £100,000. In order to make up this sum it is said that every man, woman, and child in England, Normandy. and Richard's other possessions, had to contribute.
The Fourth Crusade. The events of the next few years were indecisive. The German crusade undertaken by Henry VI failed because of his death. Finally, in 1201, a number of French knights took the cross, and sent messengers to the Italian cities to secure vessels to transport them and their army across the sea. Venice promised to furnish the necessary vessels and provisions for a year, on the payment of four marks for each horse and two marks for each man. [Natalis de Wailly estimated the value of a mark at about fifty-two francs in the present-day money. (This was when a franc was worth about nineteen cents.) If his reckoning is correct, this would mean that each man was to be provided with transportation and food for a year for about twenty dollars in our money, Of course this is entirely misleading. This is an example of the difficulty of reducing any medieval sum to the modern equivalent.] In addition Venice was to furnish vessels and troops of its own, and was to receive one half of all the conquests made. The time of departure was set for June, 1202.
Diversions to Zara. When the appointed time came only a comparatively small number of crusaders had reached Venice, and they found it impossible to raise the amount of money that had been promised. Venice was in a position to exact its own terms if the crusade was to take place. There had been a convenient ambiguity as to the destination. Venice had promised to carry the crusaders outre-mer; the host of pilgrims conceived of this as Syria; the leaders probably intended Egypt. One contemporary chronicler states that the Venetians had made a treaty with the sultan of Egypt, and had promised that they would not carry the pilgrims to his land. Whether this is true or not, Venice determined to use the expedition for its own advantage. As the crusaders were entirely unable to raise the sum that had been agreed upon, the doge proposed to the leaders that they should earn the money by capturing the city of Zara. This was situated across the Adriatic from Venice, and was a commercial rival. The leaders agreed to this, but kept the matter secret from the mass of the army, and the latter, thinking that they were actually starting on the crusade, made great bonfires and were very joyful.
The Capture of Zara. After some weeks of indecisive movements the crusading army reached Zara. [The reason for the long delay in reaching Zara has never been explained. There is a possibility that the alliance with the young Alexius was already under discussion, and that this time was spent in negotiations with him.] There was a great division in the army of the crusaders, most of them insisting that they should not attack a Christian city. The pope had already learned of the movement against Zara, and had ordered them not to war against the Christians. Finally the leaders succeeded in inducing a sufficient number to act with the Venetians, and the city was captured. Since it was late in the fall, the Venetians urged the impossibility of proceeding further that winter, and kept the crusaders at Zara.
Diversion to Constantinople. When the spring came there were fresh plots on the part of the leaders and the Venetians. It is probable that the terms of the original treaty had been kept secret from the mass of the army. According to the treaty, the Venetians were to furnish food for one year; but Villehardouin, in his history of this crusade, says that the Venetians had promised to furnish provisions for nine months, and this seems to have been the general belief in the Christian army, for there was great discussion about what was to be done. Some urged that the time for which the vessels had been hired was virtually over, and that some new arrangements must be made in order that the crusade might continue. Under those circumstances a plot with the pretender, or the "rightful heir," to the Byzantine throne made progress. In an assembly of the crusaders the doge said: "Sirs, Greece is a very rich land, and bountifully supplied with everything. If we can find a sufficient excuse for going there and taking food and other things, so as to recuperate, it would seem to be advisable, and then we could easily go across the sea." Then the marquis Boniface of Montferrat rose and said: "Sir, I was in Germany at the emperor's court last Christmas. There I saw a young man who is the emperor's brother-in-law. This young man is the son of the emperor Kyrsac (Isaac) of Constantinople, from whom his brother has taken the empire of Constantinople by treason. Whoever could get this young man, could certainly go to the land of Constantinople and take provisions and other things; for this young man is the rightful heir. "Alexius was already close at hand, and the arrangements were soon made. The proposal was that, if the crusaders would aid him, he would bring the Greek Church under the obedience of the pope; he would give two hundred thousand marks of silver and provisions; he would furnish them men to aid them in the conquest of Egypt; and as long as he lived he would maintain five hundred knights in the land of Outre-Mer to guard it. These terms were accepted by the doge and the leaders, and were finally agreed to by most of the army.
Sack of Constantinople. The crusaders set sail for Constantinople, succeeded in capturing the city, and placed Alexius and his father upon the throne. But the young Alexius was wholly unable to carry out the conditions he had made. The crusaders laid little stress upon anything except the payment of the money, but this Alexius was not able to raise. A war soon began between him and his associates, and the crusaders besiegled the city in order to secure payment. After great hardships they finally succeeded in capturing Constantinople. There had been divisions in the army throughout the whole time, and many had left the crusade because of their unwillingness to take part in such a crime. the pope had repeatedly commanded them not to attack Constantinople, and had placed the Venetians under excommunication for their deeds. But when the city was finally captured all who were Saelc of present joined in the sack. Their conduct was described later by Innocent III in scathing terms that were fully justified. The crusaders gave full vent to their passions and wantonly destroyed much of the city. Priceless treasures of art, which they were unable to appreciate, were broken in pieces. The gold and silver and relics were stolen and divided among the hosts. Indescribable orgies accompanied the sack, and the scene of the worst was the great church of St. Sophia.
Latin Empire. Before the city had been captured the crusaders had arranged for the division of the spoils. An emperor was to be elected by a commission and was to receive one-fourth of the whole empire. The remaining three fourths were to be divided equally between the Venetians and the crusaders. This compact was carried out. Count Baldwin of Flanders was elected emperor, and a Venetian patriarch was chosen. Innocent III acquiesced in the accomplished fact, and ordered the crusaders to remain for a year at Constantinople in order to strengthen the empire. The Latin Empire of Constantinople lasted only a little more than half a century, and was always weak. Venice profited greatly because she, by the terms of the agreement, secured "a quarter and a half of a quarter" of the Greek Empire, and took as her part mainly islands and possessions on the coast. Many of these she long retained. In 1261 the Latin Empire came to an end, through the capture of Constantinople by the emperor of the Empire of Nicsea, one of the rival states established by the Greek exiles from Constantinople. This ill-fated Latin Empire had weakened Constantinople, which never recovered its former strength, and had hurt the cause of the crusades, partly because the shameless conduct of the leaders in the fourth crusade had brought discredit upon the whole movement, and partly because adventurers, in search of booty, were attracted to Constantinople for half a century, and few went to fight in the Holy Land.
Children's Crusade. Innocent III was always eager for a new crusade. His preachers went throughout the West urging people to take the cross. But there was little zeal shown anywhere for the crusade. Finally, in 1212, a curious movement began which is indicative of the state of feeling at that time. A large number of children gathered together both in Germany and France, under the leadership of mere boys, saying that they were going to Jerusalem. They took as their motto "Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength, O Lord," and declared that they would succeed in recovering the Holy Land without fighting. The band of French children marched about in the north of France, singing songs and meeting with popular approbation. The French king consulted the doctors of the University of Paris concerning this movement, and, being told by them that it was unwise, he commanded the children to return home. They did so, and the movement in France came to an end.
In Germany, however, some twenty thousand children gathered under the leadership of a boy named Nicholas, and set out on their march. The band was composed of both boys and girls, of every rank in society; and some evil men and women had joined the host in order to prey upon the children. They marched up the Rhine, across the Alps, and down into Italy. On their way they suffered severely because of the heat, but were well treated by the people. They interpreted even the heat and drought as good, because they believed that the Lord would dry up the Mediterranean and open for them a way to pass through dry-shod, as the children of Israel had crossed the Red Sea. When they reached Genoa the band was estimated at about seven thousand, and the city fathers at first refused to let them enter the city. Finally permission was granted for them to remain a single night. As the sea did not open before them, the children separated to seek a passage elsewhere. Some went through Italy as far as Brindisi, and there the bishop persuaded them to return home. Others went to Marseilles, and were sold into slavery by some merchants of that city. Few returned home. Many were forced to remain in Italy. The whole expedition came into derision later; but it illustrates the spirit of the age, and the devotion to the cause of the crusade.
Conditions in the Holy Land. During this period it would have been comparatively easy for the Christians to recover Jerusalem. Saladin died soon after the third crusade; and, as his possessions were divided among his numerous heirs, civil war ensued. Their disunion made them very weak, but unfortunately the Christians did not attempt to take advantage of this. Those who remained in the Holy Land and were mainly of the merchant class, and were more interested in commerce than in fighting. They lived on comparatively advantageous terms with the Mohammedans, and preferred not to see their trade disturbed by warfare. The only important undertaking was the crusade against Damietta, and this came to nothing, mainly because the papal legate seemed determined to rule or ruin. The crusades as great military movements had practically ceased except for the expeditions of Frederic II and St. Louis, which have been mentioned in connection with the history of these monarchs. The Christians lost their last possessions in the Holy Land in 1291.
Importance of the Crusades. The importance of the crusades is due to the fact that they brought peoples of many different nationalities together, and caused an interchange of ideas and customs. It is much easier to state this generally than to attempt to tabulate the results of the movement, with regard to which the opinions of historians have varied widely. Kugler states, in substance, that it would be almost impossible to find any sphere of life that did not find some enrichment from the East during the period of the crusades. Seignobos thinks that these movements may have had some general effect upon Christian society, but that there were more active and more effective causes in the West for the results that have been noted. It seems best to hold an intermediate position and to state only certain facts.
New Tastes. Europe originally was not so well supplied as Asia with the necessities of life, and in particular with the various grains and fruits. Very many of our common plants have been brought from the Orient, but only a few are definitely known to have been brought during the period of the crusades; among these may be noted the Ascalonian garlic, watermelons, and a few others. But the crusaders became familiar with many things in the East, and when they returned home they desired these. They had formed new tastes that they wanted to gratify. An example may be taken from the use of spices. In Rome their use had been common, but with the decline of commerce and the unsettled condition of society they gradually dropped out of use in the West. If we can trust the figures that are given, at the capture of Caesarea in 1101 the Genoese in their portion of the booty received more than sixteen thousand pounds of pepper. Whether this statement is accurate or not, pepper and other spices came into use in the West in the twelfth century. and from that time on no banquet was complete without spiced dishes and wine. Comparatively soon other tastes were also acquired in the Orient, especially in the matter of clothing. The fine cloths, especially of muslin and silk, were very much appreciated. Camel's-hair and the finer furs were also introduced into their own homes by the returning crusaders. More effective military methods and implements became known by their contact with the Greeks and the Mohammedans--in particular Greek-fire and the cross-bow.
Transportation. In order to gratify these new needs, better means of transportation were required. Fortunately, these were supplied by the crusaders themselves. The great bands of pilgrims who went to the Holy Land necessitated the construction of larger vessels to carry them, their horses, and their provisions. The crusaders in Syria needed war-horses, food supplies, and lumber from their own homes. Vessels made two trips each year with the pilgrims: one to carry those who desired to keep Easter at Jerusalem, and a second in the fall for those who wished to spend their Christmas in the Holy Land. The vessels that carried the pilgrims and their supplies were able to take back cargoes of Eastern products, and the cost of transportation was reduced to a very great extent. This carrying trade brought great profits to the Italian cities through which the goods were carried to the various parts of the West.
Manufacturing. The wares they had learned to desire during their sojourn in the East were not only imported, but were also manufactured at home. In certain centers the making of Saracen rugs and other products in imitation of the Orient was actively carried on. In fact, during the period of the crusades cloth that was made at Arras was esteemed so highly that it was sent as a present to one of the Turkish rulers, and the silk manufactures of Sicily became important. This manufacturing and commerce caused the growth of fairs.
Money. For this increased trade a larger supply of money was needed. The crusaders for their expeditions also needed large sums of ready money which they could transport or send to the Holy Land. The gold and silver that had been hoarded or used as ornaments were coined and passed rapidly into circulation. But the supply was not sufficient, and the Templars soon began to use letters of credit. By the rapidity of circulation and by the instruments of credit the amount of capital was enormously enhanced, and the merchants acquired great wealth.
Money Lending. During the twelfth century, as noted elsewhere, the cost of living increased very rapidly. Both the nobles and the clergy desired the new luxuries that had soon become quasi-necessities. The income of the nobleman was to a great extent fixed by custom; from each tenant on an estate he received so much service and definite payments each year. The more enterprising were able to increase their incomes in various ways, but the great majority could obtain the luxuries only by borrowing. Moneylending was largely in the hands of the Jews, as Christians were forbidden to take interest, and, because of the unsettled condition of the times, the rates of interest were extremely high. In England the usual rate was twopence on a pound each week, compounded once in six weeks; this is equivalent to over 52 per cent. a year. The nobleman who once fell into debt had little opportunity of getting out. As a result, many of the lenders came to be very heartily hated, and the hatred found vent in the persecution of the Jews, especially when the nobles were in need of large sums of ready money, as at the beginning of the first or second or third crusade. But until the thirteenth century there was no fixed hostility to the Jews on the part of society at large.
Skepticism. Next to the economic, the intellectual results of the crusades were the most important. Contact with men of other nations and other creeds caused a change in the ideas held by the crusaders. They became tolerant of the Mohammedans and of the heretics, although events later were to bring about a great reaction of intolerance. When they set out on the first crusade, the Christians held many beliefs that they were destined to find untrue. Count Stephen of Blois wrote home to his wife that what they had been told about the climate of Syria was false. The chroniclers had whol;,v to revise their estimate of the bravery of the Turks, whom they had been taught to consider cowards. The men from the West were constantly having brought to their attention new matters that caused them to question, and their questioning led to doubt. Also Eastern heresies spread rapidly along the routes followed by the merchants.
New Literatures. Every one was keenly interested in the crusades because there was scarcely a village from which no one had gone on one or another of these expeditions. News from the Holy Land was eagerly awaited. The songs that were sung in the crusading army were often repeated in the West before attentive audiences. Histories of the undertakings were written, and at the beginning of the thirteenth century accounts of the fourth crusade were produced in the vernacular. The events that were related in these songs and histories made the people who had stayed at home acquainted with names of geographical places and many Oriental peculiarities and customs. French was so commonly used and understood that the stories current in one country soon passed to another, especially as they were borne by the pilgrims on their journeys to various shrines. Many a romantic episode occurred and was afterwards preserved in song. Among these was the unexpected return of the longRowst.#rd why had been believed to be dead. Not infrequently his identity was established only by the broken ring with which he had pledged his wife, or by some similar device. Frankish maidens had been married to Mohammedans, and Saracen princesses had left their homes to follow Christian knights. All of this new material for romance was eagerly welcomed in the West.
Summary. A number of definite acquisitions of a miscellaneous character may be ascribed to the contact between the Franks and the natives during the crusades. The art of heraldry grew up in Syria, and many of its terms betray their Oriental origin. Family names also became common, because of the necessity of distinguishing one from another. Certain customs, such as the use of windmills and the wearing of beards, were introduced. But the most important results were the broadening of the intellectual horizon and the enrichment of the West.