MONASTICISM

[Excerpted from Carlton Munro, The Middle Ages, 395-1272 (New York: The Century Company, 1921), pp. 319-330]

Increase of Monasteries. The lure of this world, which affected so strongly the life of the nobles, had little effect upon many an earnest soul. The centuries that saw the development of chivalry witnessed also a remarkable growth in monasticism. Many new orders of Increase on monks were founded, and many thousands of men and women sought a refuge from the world by entering monasteries. For, as has been so often said, the Middle Ages was a period of great contrasts, when many individuals sought to atone for brutal crimes by frightful penances, when men and women fled with loathing from society, from their friends and families, in order to merit an eternal reward through their asceticism and prayers. This movement received a mighty impetus from the preaching of the crusades. Preachers like Peter the Hermit taught the need of repentance, and many who were influenced by them, especially after the first crusade, felt that it was more salutary for them to enter a monastery than to go to the Holy Land. In time this feeling became so common that Caesarius of Heisterbach, in the thirteenth century, stated that Bernard of Clairvaux had sorted the more worthy from those who were eager to go on the crusade and had sent them into monasteries instead.

Factors Reshaping Monasticism. Already in the eleventh century two factors were reshaping Factors monasticism. The first was the influence of the Congregation of Cluny, which showed the importance of union under a common head. This was recognized as so beneficial that later even the Benedictine monasteries, which had had no common bond, no direct relations with one another, were grouped into congregations. Their representatives met in general chapters, and each year two monks were chosen as " papal visitors " to visit each monastery in a congregation. The second factor was the foundation of new monastic orders by men and women who desired to lead a life of greater asceticism than was required by the Benedictine rule. One of the most important features in this rule was its spirit of moderation. St. Benedict had made allowance for human frailty and had sought to lay upon his followers no burden too heavy for them to bear. In the course of time the discipline in many a Benedictine monastery had become lax.. This was true even of Cluny: "it still maintained monastic decencies while not going beyond their demands." Consequently, a while most monks in the eleventh century were content to live under Benedict's rule, the more earnest, shall we say, the more fanatical, preferred to follow the letter rather than the spirit of the rule, and to add to it other regulations that made life more ascetic and to them more holy.

Lay Brothers. This movement began in Italy, early in the eleventh century, with the foundation of the order of Camaldoli, which was composed of hermits living in detached cells. This order gave effective aid to the popes in their efforts toward reform. A little later the order of Vallombrosa was established. This made an innovation in monastic practice by separating the monks into choir brothers and lay brothers. The latter were those who from lack of education were unable to chant the offices. To them was assigned the rougher work, so that the choir brethren might have more leisure for study, contemplation, and prayer. This division of duties was adopted by other orders. It sometimes led to friction. In the order of Grammont the choir brothers complained that the lay brothers attempted to interfere in spiritual matters, such as the hours for masses, and when not heeded, cut off the supplies. The dispute as to the jurisdiction finally had to be referred to the pope for settlement.

Carthusians. The movement to establish new orders soon spread to other countries. In France it resulted in the rise of the order of Carthusians, established toward the close of the eleventh century in the mountains near Grenoble. It was said to demand a more austere mode of life than any other order. Its monks were prohibited from speaking except when speech was necessary. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, gave a description of their life, which reads in part as follows: " Their dress is meaner and poorer than that of other monks, so short and scanty and so rough that the very sight affrights one. They wear coarse hair-shirts next their skin; fast almost perpetually; eat only bean-bread; whether sick or well never touch flesh; never buy fish, but eat it if given them as an alms; eat eggs on Sundays and Thursdays; on Tuesdays and Saturdays their fare is pulse or herbs boiled; on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays they take nothing but bread and water; and they have only two meals a day, except within the octaves of Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, Epiphany, and other festivals. Their constant occupation is praying, reading, and manual labor, which consists chiefly in transcribing books." In spite of this severity, possibly because of it, the order won many converts, both men and women. It spread to Italy, Switzerland, and England. In the last its convents were known as charter-houses, a corruption or misunderstanding of Chartreuse. Its members have boasted, if it is permissible to use such a term, that theirs is the only order that has never been reformed: Carthusia numquam reformata, quia numquam deformata.

Cistercians. The Cistercians, a congregation of Benedictines, were founded in 1092 and soon became Cluny's greatest rival. This was due chiefly to two of its members: Stephen Harding and Bernard of Clairvaux. The former, although not the founder of the order, was very influential in determining the form of its organization. The most distinctive features were greater strictness and asceticism, the subordination of all its monasteries to the abbot and convent at Citeaux, chapter meetings annually at which the superior in each convent was obliged to be present. The purpose was to assure uniformity in practice throughout the order. Bernard became a Cistercian in 1113. Although Peter the Venerable of Cluny had more than two thousand monasteries under his jurisdiction, Bernard soon came to have greater influence and power, and his order profited by his prestige. He is one of the best examples of what an individual could accomplish in the twelfth century if he were a monk.

Clairvaux. Bernard was of noble birth and had received an excellent education. At twenty-two he became a Cistercian monk and two years later was made abbot of Clairvaux. " Then," says a contemporary, who wrote before the death of Bernard, " the golden age reigned at Clairvaux. There were to be seen virtuous men, who had formerly been rich and honored by the world, now glorying in the poverty of Christ, who were building God's Church at the price of their blood, their sweat, and their fatigue, enduring hunger and thirst, cold, nakedness, persecutions, outrages, and very great anguish, and thus preparing at Clairvaux the ease and peace which this house now enjoys. Believing that they were living not so much for themselves as for Christ and for the brethren who would come to serve God in this place, they thought what they themselves lacked was of no importance, provided they could leave behind them enough to satisfy their brethren and to provide for the necessities of a poverty embraced voluntarily for the love of Christ. When visitors descended from the mountain to Clairvaux and first caught sight of the house God was manifest, while the silent valley revealed by the simplicity and humility of its buildings the simplicity and humility of the poor men of Christ who dwelt in them. In this valley full of men, where no one was permitted to be idle, where every a one worked and was busy at the allotted tasks, visitors found in the daytime the silence of night, interrupted only by the noise of labor or at the holy hours when the brethren sang praises to God."

Bernard. Bernard loved to live at Clairvaux, in his narrow, comfortless cell. But there was another side to his nature which drove g him forth constantly into the world, to right wrongs, to make peace, to preach. " It has been truthfully said that, of all his miracles, the most surprising was his personality itself, the inconceivable union of two contradictory temperaments; on one side the monk, according to the ideal of the age, contemplative, mystical, ascetic, who kept his body under almost to its destruction, and seemed to have lost the sense of things material, skirting Lake Geneva a whole day without seeing it, and drinking oil for water; on the other hand, the man of action, the indefatigable preacher, the officious councilor of the high barons, kings, and popes, the real chief of the Western Church, the politician who was extraordinarily busy and active." It was he who healed the papal schism that broke out in I130. The larger party among the cardinals had elected Anaclete II, while a few had chosen Innocent II. The former got possession of Rome, and Innocent had to flee. Fortunately, he received the support of Bernard, who declared that votes should be weighed, not counted, and he undertook to do the weighing. He succeeded in securing for his protege the support of the kings of France, Germany, England, Castile, and Aragon, and Innocent's triumph was secured. Although he supported the papacy with all his strength and eloquence, Bernard saw the weaknesses in the position of the pope, and in his so-called " Catechism of the Pope " dwelt upon the dangers and evils that the temporal power and the ambitions of the popes brought to the Church. Few heretics ever wrote more scathingly than did Bernard. But he was interested not merely in the affairs of the Church: to him everything was connected with the cause of religion, and therefore a matter of interest to him. He made peace between the emperor Lothair and the Hohenstaufens; he put an end to civil strife in certain Italian and German cities; in France his influence was very great, at times even greater than that of Suger. He was the preacher of the second crusade, and compelled the emperor Conrad to take the cross in spite of his unwillingness. As Luchaire has written: " St. Bernard governed Christianity in the West from 1125 to 1153 by the mere prestige of his eloquence and holiness; . . . recounting his life would be equivalent to writing the history of the monastic orders, of the reform movement, of the orthodox theology, of the heretical doctrines, of the second crusade, and of the destinies of France, Germany, and Italy during a period of almost forty years."

Ideals Of Cistercians. Such was the man who had greatest influence in shaping the Cistercian order. He determined that the Cistercian monk should have the least possible contact with the world. In order to avoid dealings with laymen, they were not to establish schools in their monasteries. Their abbeys were usually built in a wilderness far from the cities. The rule of Citeaux forbids the acquisition of churches, villages, serfs, mills, or of anything that might bring with it feudal responsibilities. The monks were to labor with their own hands, cultivating the vineyards and fields, but were not allowed to sell their products at retail. They were also forbidden to perform the duties of priests by officiating in churches. Their life was extremely strict; and their food was limited, and even then usually poorly cooked, as there was no regular cook and each monk in turn prepared the food. In their churches the walls were bare and no ornamentation was allowed. Towers were prohibited, except small wooden ones.

Growth of Cistercian Order. The fame of Clairvaux spread rapidly, and many another like Otto of Freising, was attracted to the Cistercian order. It has been calculated that during the twelfth century twenty-two thousand men entered the order. At the end of the thirteenth century, by the most moderate calculations, the order included about seven hundred monasteries for men and a still larger number for women. But by this time the order had changed greatly. Already some of the wonderful buildings, whose beauty now delights our eyes, were being constructed by the Cistercians, for they had departed far from the ideals of their great abbot. Before this time they had obtained control of a large part of the wool trade in England and had become very wealthy. The order's discipline had so declined that it could no longer reproach Cluny for lax living. Its members no longer avoided contact with the world. They had become noted for their improvements in agriculture. They reclaimed waste lands, and were especially skilled in draining marshes. They were successful in breeding cattle, horses, and sheep. They made glass.

Cistercian Nuns. At first there were no nuns in the Cistercian order. One of the cardinals, Jacques de Vitry, says that "the weaker sex at the rise of the order could not aspire to conform to such severe rules, nor to rise to such a pitch of excellence." But it is characteristic of the new position women were taking in the twelfth century that they soon claimed a share in this new order. By the middle of the century Cistercian nuns " sewed and span, and grubbed up briers and thorns in the waste places." In the first half of the thirteenth century, Jacques de Vitry says that not only were there Cistercian convents for women in the western countries, but also " in the oriental provinces, in Constantinople and Cyprus, in Antioch, Tripoli, and Acre."

Fontevrault. Before the Cistercians admitted women, there had been many Benedictine nuns, usually women of gentle birth. In addition other orders had been founded that included women as well as men. In fact, Robert of Arbrissel, the founder of Fontevrault (I096), the earliest of these combined orders, was especially interested in providing a refuge for women. He was the son of a priest and of a priest's daughter, and was intent upon reforming conditions. He became a wandering preacher and converted many. For the repentant men and women who gathered about him he established a home at Fontevrault. In the words of his biographer, Baldric, archbishop of Dol. " the poor were received, the feeble were not refused, nor women of evil life, nor sinners, neither lepers nor the helpless." In accordance with the regulations that Robert made, the men were divided into classes, some for religious services, others for manual labor; " they were to use soft words, not to swear." The women were all to engage in labor. Many eagerly entered the establishment. " Men of all conditions came; women came, the poor as well as those of gentle birth; widows and virgins; aged men and youths, women of dissolute life as well as those who held aloof from men." Robert placed the order under the patronage of the Virgin and made a woman the head. There are said to have been sixty convents of this order in France.

Secular Canons. The foundation of the Premonstratensians was due to a different effort for reform. The clergy who officiated in a cathedral, or those who carried on the services in the various churches of a town, had formerly been grouped into chapters and had led a quasi-monastic life, following the example set by St. Augustine at Hippo. For the maintenance of these clerics, or canons as they were called, a part of the property belonging to the cathedral or to the churches had been divided into portions called prebends, of which each canon held one or more. These prebends had come to be regarded virtually as benefices, and the canons in a wealthy diocese had tended to become feudal nobles. They were often married, and lived much like lords, paying little attention to their religious duties and employing vicars to perform the necessary services. To remedy the scandal caused by these degenerate canons, sometimes monks had been charged with their duties. But this was generally felt to be not fitting. Toward the close of the eleventh century many attempts were made to reform the chapters; but the task was so difficult that early in the following century new orders of canons regular were founded, of which Premontré (1120) was the most successful.

Premonstratensians. Its founder, Norbert, was a German of noble birth who had entered the Church. He was a kinsman of the emperor Henry V, from whom he received many benefices. The reform movement had made little progress in Germany, where the investiture struggle was still unsettled. But Norbert was suddenly converted, and with great zeal he attempted to convert others. They were deaf to his pleas, and in fact insulted and threatened him. He finally sold all that he possessed and, giving the proceeds to the poor, went to France. There he went about barefooted, preaching, and soon gathered followers. For their abode he chose, in 1120, a home in an unhealthy spot destitute of all natural advantages, which he called Premontre " from the belief that the Virgin had pointed it out to him. " His success was rapid. Crowds flocked to him and donations poured in. Women also came, and double monasteries were established for both men and women. Soon the presence of women raised problems, and a general chapter decided that no more women should be allowed in monasteries where there were men. Later many convents were established for women.

Activities of Canons. The orders of canons attracted many because their activities were so varied. While leading an ascetic life, much like the new orders of monks, they were not so much apart from the world. Some were intrusted with the duties of pastors; some went forth as missionaries; others engaged in philanthropic work. There was a sufficient elasticity to meet the needs of widely different characters. There was ample scope for both those who chose the contemplative life and those who preferred the active. The wealth that was showered upon them enabled them to found hospitals, and also provided opportunity for the brethren especially fitted for administrative duties.

Number of Monks. The contemporaries wondered at the rapid increase in the number of monks. Peter the Venerable exclaimed that " the innumerable multitude of monks covers almost all the lands of France; it fills the cities, castles, and fortified places. What a variety of garbs and customs in this army of the Lord which has taken an oath to live according to the rule, in the name of faith and charity!" Many a similar statement might be cited. It is impossible to make any estimate of the total number, and it is unsafe to trust enthusiastic reports, such as the one – that ten thousand women joined the Premonstratensian order during Norbert's lifetime, that is, in the first fourteen years. But the number of monks and nuns was very large, especially in France.

Templars. It was natural that this example should be followed in the Holy Land, to which so many French warriors had gone. But because of the conditions in Palestine, the new orders established there took on new duties. Eight French knights associated themselves together to protect pilgrims on their journeys to the holy places. They took the three monastic vows of poverty chastity, and obedience. The king of Jerusalem gave them for their home a part of his palace, which was near the site of the temple of Solomon, and from this they received their name of Poor Brothers of the Temple of Jerusalem, or Templars. Bernard of Clairvaux was much interested in their work and gave to it his mighty support. By its rule, authorized at the Council of Troyes in 1128, the order was to include three classes of members: only nobles could belong to the knightly class; freeborn men could become sergeants or squires; in addition there were to be clerics for the religious services. Up to this time there had been only the eight original companions. Now they received many recruits and much wealth. The pope gave them the privilege of wearing a red cross. They were given several castles in the Holy Land to guard. Gifts came from western Europe, and privileges were showered upon them as defenders of the Holy Land. This military order, besides fighting valiantly, possessed a fleet of vessels engaged in trade, and maintained a banking business. In the thirteenth century Matthew Paris said that it held seven thousand manors in western Europe.

Hospitalers. Even before the first crusade, hospitals had been established at Jerusalem te care for the sick pilgrims. One of these gradually developed into the order of the Knights of St. John. Its e hospital was still kept up and its seal still showed a sick man lying upon his bed; but, in imitation of the Templars, the members took the monastic vows and devoted themselves to fighting the infidel or guarding castles. They were given property in many countries. They and the Templars were a great source of military strength in Syria, but at times were a hindrance to the king of Jerusalem because they were exempt from all jurisdiction except the pope's. The two orders were frequently hostile to each other. In imitation other military orders were established, especially the Teutonic Knights and various Spanish orders.

Ideal of Service. The Premonstratensians, Hospitalers, and Templars represent a new ideal that was becoming prominent in monasticism in the twelfth century, the ideal of service. The new orders founded from this time on were more for the purpose of service to others than to give an opportunity to the members to secure their own salvation by a life of retirement from the world, devoted to contemplation and prayer. This key-note of service will be remarked in the orders of Friars in the thirteenth century and in many another . Some interesting twelfth-century examples are the order of Bridge-Builders, founded in 1189, to build bridges in order to make travel easier for others, and the order of Trinitarians, founded in 1197, whose duty it was to redeem Christian captives held as slaves by the Saracens. The first was comparatively limited in its scope, but did much useful work. The second persisted for a long time in its special service, and later transferred its activities to other fields. There were many other new orders founded in the twelfth century, so that some of the leaders of the Church felt that there was a danger in so many different ideals and so many different modes of life. The fourth Lateran Council, in 12I5, in one of its canons prohibited the creation of any new order; but this prohibition was not observed.

Wealth of Monasteries. The services that they performed and the prestige that they enjoyed made the monks very influential. Their influence was enhanced by the wealth of many monasteries, which gave to their abbots high position and great opportunity. The examples of Suger and Bernard of Clairvaux have already been noted. There are many other examples. A few illustrations may be drawn from the well known chronicle of Jocelin of Brakelonde, of which Carlyle made use in his Past and Present. A cursory reading of Jocelin's eulogy of the deeds of Abbot Samson of St. Edmondsbury shows, as the author says, that Samson "appeared to prefer the active to the contemplative life, and praised good -officials more than good monks. " " He caused inquests to be made in every manor belonging to the abbey " of all the annual dues, revenues, and expenses. He had in his gift the presentation to many churches, in whole or in part. When the sum of all the units and fractions is added up, it amounts to more than sixty-five churches and this right of presentation was valued at more than £44o. He sold the wardship of a girl who was his vassal to the archbishop of Canterbury for £100, because he " could not obtain possession of her person save with the help of the archbishop. " He confirmed the liberties of the burgesses of St. Edmund's for a payment of £40. In 1193 he took part in the siege of Windsor, " where he appeared in arms with some other abbots of England, and had his own standard. He had there also with him many knights at great expense. " His vassals owed him the service of more than fifty knights, although the number was at times a matter of dispute between him and his vassals, and he acknowledged service to the king for only forty. He had many controversies and disputes, not only with his own vassals and officials, but also with the kings of England, with the archbishops of Canterbury, with the earl of Clare, with the papal legates, and with the men of London about the payment of tolls at the fair of St. Edmund's. As a mark of his pride it was remarked that he would not give place even to the abbot of Cluny. Besides the wealth that Samson enjoyed, other officials of St. Edmundsbury and the monastery itself had large sources of income.

Incentives to Enter Monasteries. These examples bring out the worldly cares of one abbot. Many another was more occupied in the administration of the temporal affairs of his convent than in maintaining the monastic discipline. For wealth had brought relaxation of discipline and had attracted many unworthy men and women to the new orders, as well as to the old. Caesarius of Heisterbach, a Cistercian monk, in his " Dialogue of Miracles " devotes the first section to the virtue of conversion, that is, to the virtue of becoming a monk. He says that there are many reasons for conversion: "Innumerable are those who are brought to our order by necessity of many kinds, such as sickness, poverty, captivity, shame for some sin, deadly peril, fear or experience of hell's tortures, desire for heaven. " He gives examples from his own experience: a noble condemned to death was pardoned on condition that he should enter the Cistercian order, and he says: "I have frequently heard of similar cases;" of a canon at Cologne who was caught stealing and fled to the monastery; of a man who had lost his property and told Caesarius, " Certainly, if I had prospered in worldly affairs, I should never have entered the order. " And he quotes the Gospel: " Compel them to come in, that my house may be filled." Caesarius confesses his fear that such conversion may not always be lasting. But he writes that " the archbishop of Treves, who was a prudent man and knew well the secrets of our order, was wont to say that it was not usual for boys or youths who entered our order with no burden of sin on their conscience to be fervent. "

Reaction. Many of these monks whose lives were not occupied in labor suffered from accidia. This was one of " the seven chief sins. " It may be defined sometimes as spleen, or sloth, or sadness, or despair; but too many different conditions are included under the term to make it possible to give one modern equivalent. It was a mental condition that might result merely in laziness and distaste for the monastic duties, or it might, and frequently did, lead to suicide. It was recognized as one of the commonest temptations to which a monk or nun was exposed. Many fled from their convents on one excuse or another, to study at Paris, to go on a pilgrimage, to visit sick kinsmen; they longed to escape from their prison and to live outside, among men. The number of such monks was a scandal. They frequented the fairs and tourneys and other public gatherings. In vain did the moralists attempt to check this evil.

Criticisms. The spirit of asceticism and the zeal for reform that had actuated the founders had made the new orders powerful and wealthy. Gradually, and in some cases rapidly, the orders had declined in discipline, and their ideals had deteriorated. This is evident from the statements of individual monks, and especially from the reforms repeatedly ordered by the chapters of the various orders. All monasteries, of course, were not so bad, and there were notable examples of services rendered, especially in times of famine. But Guyot de Provins, in his so-called Bible, Criticisms expressed a common feeling in his strictures upon the different orders. Although himself a Benedictine, he satirizes the black monks of Cluny as well as the white-robed Cistercians, the canons of Premontre and the military orders. He blames the hypocrisy of some, the covetousness and pride of others, the lack of true religion in all. He says: "Chanting and fasting are not what save the soul, but faith and charity."

Literature; St. Alexis. The same zeal for reform that actuated the founders of the monastic orders had caused the writing of many poems in the vernacular which were intended to teach the Christian virtues, and especially the monastic ones. The earlier poems were usually crude; but, beginning with the Life of St. Alexis, there were some of a high degree of literary excellence. The St. Alexis was contemporary with the rise of the new orders in the eleventh century. It was a reworking of a Latin life of the saint, but with much greater skill and charm than the original. The poet begins by lamenting the decline in faith and morals. Then he tells how Alexis's father, a wealthy Roman noble, bought as a bride for his son the daughter of a Frankish noble. But Alexis was a monk at heart and did not desire earthly pleasures. immediately after the marriage ceremony he charged his bride to take Christ as her spouse, and he fled to the Orient. He gave all that he had to the poor and became a beggar at Edessa. His parents sought for him in vain. Finally Alexis returned home unrecognized, and lived for seventeen years as a beggar in his parents' house, fed by scraps from their table and insulted by their servants. When he was on his death-bed his identity was made known by a miracle, and he received due honor as a saint. But his mother clung to his dead body and cried, " My son, why have you had no pity for us? My son, why haven't you spoken to me even once?" The moral is that the monk must renounce all human ties. Alexis had won heaven and sainthood by his humility and asceticism. Many other tales were written to inculcate these and similar monastic virtues.

Chronicles . The monks were the historians of the Middle Ages. Beginning with brief annals in which they recorded unusual events, such as famines or cold winters, and the death of great men, they gradually expanded their accounts into chronicles dealing with the history of the world from the creation down to their own day. In the larger convents, where kings and nobles were frequent visitors and where the abbots took an important part in the events of the day, the writers were able to gather much information, and their accounts are of great value for the history of their age. Much of the material and many of the quotations in this volume have been taken from monastic chroniclers.

Other Writings. Reference has already been made to the labor of monks as copyists, by which much of the classical literature as well as the writings of the Fathers have been preserved for us. The monks also composed original works in many fields, especially lives of the saints, biographies of other notable men, commentaries on the Scriptures, text-books, and controversial pamphlets. A full list off the subjects on which they wrote would be too long for inclusion here. For the monastery was, before 1200 A. D., the natural retreat for any one who wished to devote himself or herself to study and writing. The modern world owes a great debt to those men and women who withdrew from society to devote their lives to the pursuit of learning and the performance of their monastic duties.