\

Home | Syllabus | Film Series and Reviews | Web Readings | Lecture Outlines | Selected Lecture Notes History 369:  The World Since1914

Selected Lecture Notes

HISTORY 369: WORLD IN THE 20TH CENTURY   Lecture Notes: Fascism in Italy I. Post-World War I Italy. Italy came out of World War I with economic hard times and disillusionment and dissatisfaction over Italy's lack of war gains and small role at the Paris Peace Conference.  A. Agricultural and Industrial Weakness. Italy's economy was bifurcated between a moderately industrial north and an agrarian, economically passive south. Italy had to import food because it agricultural output could not keep up with the growing population. The safety valve of emigration was partially closed by the new U.S. immigration law which effectively barred immigrants from Italy and other parts of southern and eastern Europe. Italy lacked resources such as coal for its industry.  B. Financial Crises. The Italian war effort left the government in such straits that it could barely afford to import coal and.  C. Unemployment. Unemployment was widespread with the return of discharged soldiers. Labor disturbances, stemming from economic and political turmoil, brought about the growth of Socialist and Communist Movements. They in turn were inspired by the success of the Russian Revolution.  D. Frustrated Foreign Policy. The peace settlement did not Italy did not receive territorial compensation for its war effort in the Balkans (either Albania or Dalmatia), nor mandates over German colonies or Ottoman possessions. Italians were extremely dissatisfied and disillusioned by the lack of war gains and blamed the immediate post war governments.  E. Political Instability. Weak coalitions and an unstable multiparty system made for revolving door governments. This made it difficult for a government to be in power long enough to institute reforms.  1. Exacerbating the problem was the rise of a radical Italian Communist Party, which together with anarcho-syndicalists, organized strikes and factory takeovers.  2. The problems created a widespread fear of a Bolshevik revolution and moved many moderates and conservative elements to demand law and order at any cost cost.  F. The March on Rome. To bring order from chaos, King Victor Emmanuel III asked Benito Mussolini, leader of the Fascist party to form a cabinet. Mussolini responded promptly in October 1922; he remained in power until July l943.  B. The Fascist Rise to Power. Mussolini, a former socialist coalesced the Fascist party around a cadre of disgruntled war veterans and nationalists, organized into paramilitary gangs, known as squadri fascisti, who fought in the streets with communists and socialists and protested against the peace treaties and the weakness of the parliamentary government.  A. Name and Symbol. The Fascist party adopted its name and symbol from the Roman fasces, a symbol of authority carried used in the Roman Republic and Empire. The Fascists always harkened back to the glories of the Roman Empire and claimed that they wanted to restore Italy to those glories.  B. Organization and Tactics. Party members wore gaudy uniforms with black shirts, carried clubs, knives and small arms, engaged in street fighting and assaults on socialists, communists and others.  C. Political Maneuverings. In the 1921 parliamentary elections, the Fascists only gained thirty-five seats in the Chamber of Deputies, about 10 %. By playing upon fear of communism, chauvinism and threat of violence, they gave the impression that they were a mass movement. In an act of supreme bluster, Mussolini and the Fascists staged a "million man march" on Rome, which cowed a significant segment of the Italian body politic. The King, Victor Emmanuel III, either out of fear or frustration, agreed to allow Benito Mussolini, leader of the Fascist party to form a cabinet. Mussolini formed his first government in October 1922 and held onto power until July l943  2. Actually, the Communists were stronger in Italy in 1921 than in 1922, but Fascist propaganda played upon Italians' fear of Communism and gained the support of many important Italian industrialists.  3. Less than half the members of Mussolini's first government were actually Fascists. Many Italian politicians considered Mussolini's government as a temporary aberration.  III. Fascist Consolidation of Power. Once the Fascists were in power, however, they transformed the government into a dictatorship.  A. Repressive Measures. The Fascist government soon restricted voting rights, the press, and the rights of organized labor.  B. The Matteotti Incident. Some opposition views were still allowed in the Chamber of Deputies until 1924, when a socialist deputy, Giacomo Matteotti, came out revelations of the Fascist government's culpability in the prevailing political corruption and violence. He was soon "taken for a ride" and assassinated by the Fascists.  1. The Matteotti murder caused widespread revulsion and public protest, but the Mussolini government was not removed by the king or parliament.  2. Mussolini officially fired those implicated the murder, but brought them back into the government when public uproar calmed down.  E. One Party Rule. In the wake of the Matteotti affair, the fascists began to remove the last vestiges of parliamentary government. The Chamber of Deputies soon lost all it remaining powers and was replaced by a Fascist grand Council. All political parties were suppressed and one party, the Fascists, oversaw Italian government. Mussolini, who had become known as il Duce (the leader), loomed over the Fascist party. A secret police, known as OVRA, was formed to maintain the security of the Fascist government and the political power of the Fascist Party.  IV. Fascism-Theory and Practice. Mussolini was an eclectic opportunist who tended to form his political theories to meet the provisional political needs of the party and government as they developed. As a former socialist, he derived ideology both from the left and the right. Nevertheless certain key elements can be seen in Fascist Ideology.  A. Nationalism. The Fascists were extreme nationalists who extolled Italian chauvinism and Jingoism and called upon Italian to fulfill their destiny as an imperial people.  B. Statism. The Fascists exalted the state as above all citizens and all other institution-- churches, organizations, unions, clubs, etc. within it. The fascists considered the state not only the organizing force of the nation but also the embodiment of it ideals.  C. Corporativism. In 1933, Mussolini declared that Italy had become a "corporate state." In each major industry, trade or vocation, associations of workers and managers, known as corporations were to meet together to set wages, prices, and working conditions. These corporations or estates were dominated by the fascists.  1. The corporate agreements were subject to the approval and control of the "Grand Council of Corporations." This system allowed the fascists to coordinate the economy and control labor without nationalizing or socializing the means of production.  D. Authoritarianism. Fascism perverted popular sovereigntv, by claiming that Mussolini and the Fascist party represented the will of the Italian People.  E. Totalitarianism. In theory, Mussolini's rule was supposed to be progrssive, strong and resolute, but theis was an illusion; but was a corrupt and brutal dictatorship that verged on totalitarianism  1. Mussolini was a clever orator and demagogue; he gave dramatic and bombastic performances to large crowds to orchestrate "support" for his policy. Pompous parades and staged spectacles were filmed and broadcasted to mobilize mass support, or at least aquiescence.  2. Mussolini's government seemingly conducted out public projects to curb unemployment and produce self sufficiently--many of these were for show and for propaganda.  3. Nevertheless, public transportation was regularized (the trains now ran on time in Italy). Hydroelectric plants were built to replace coal for energy production. Government coordination of industry and agriculture was made to protect Italian industries for foreign competition and to make Italian farms sel-sufficient..  4. In 1929, Mussolini ended the long standing war of nerves and excommunication between the Catholic Church and the Italian state by negotiating a concordat in which the Papacy recognized the Kingdom of Italy, while Italy recognized the papal mini-state of Vatican city. Nevertheless relations between the Catholic Church and Fascist Italy remained strained, especially over Fascist efforts at dominating schools and youth groups.  G. Imperialist Foreign Policy. Mussolini's foreign policy was based upon militarism, irredentism, imperialism and territorial expansion.  1. In the l920's Mussolini enhanced his reputation as an expansionist by annexation of the port of Fiume and gaining a sphere of influence over Albania.  2. To keep attention away from Italy's domestic problems in the wake of the great depression, Mussolini expanded the Italian armed forces and used them in crushing a revolt in Libya (1920's and 30's) and invading Ethiopia (1935-1936). He also bolstered General Franco's nationalist Falange movement in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), by sending arms and 50,000 "volunteers".  3. After failing to prevent Hitler's annexation of Austria, Mussolini formed an alliance with Nazi Germany. But during the war, Italian fiascoes in North Africa and Greece made Mussolini increasingly dependent upon Hitler. This proved to be a disaster that turned Italy into a war zone.     HISTORY 369: WORLD IN THE 20TH CENTURY   Lecture: WEIMAR GERMANY AND THE RISE OF THE NAZIS. I. The End of Imperial Germany.  During the final weeks of World War I, the German Imperial government unraveled. The outbreak of a sailors' at Imperial Naval base at Kiel, purred on similar uprisings in other armed force units and bread riots in the major cities. By November 9, Kaiser Wil1iam II, like his cousin Nicholas, was forced to abdicate. But unlike Nicholas, he lived out his life in exile in Holland. Abdicated. Two days later an armistice was signed between Germany and the Allies. A.The Provisional Government. A provisional government was organized and led mainly by the Social Democratic party. B The Social Democrats. The SPD was largest political party in Imperial Germany. The SPD was divided into factions. 1. The Majority Socialists or gradualist faction supported a broad-based party, parliamentary road to power and gradual development of socialism. 2. Independent Socialists favored immediate socialization of society and nationalization of industry, but like the gradualist supported non-violent means to this end. 3. The Spartacists favored immediate violent overthrow of the government and the establishment of a Dictatorship of the proletariat like the Russian Bolsheviks. C. The Spartacist Putsch. The Spartacists attempted a revolution in Berlin in January 1919. 1. The Provisional Government withdrew to Weimar and raised volunteer units of demobilized troops (freikorps) and deployed them against the Spartacists in Berlin. 2. The bulk of the German army opposed the Spartacist revolt and the coup was smothered within a few days. 3. The army's action in suppressing the Spartacist revolt tended to restore the Germans' esteem for the army even though it had been defeated in the war. D. The Weimar Constitution. The provisional government did not wait long to convene a constitutional convention, like the Russian Provisional government in 1917. In February 1919, less than a month after the Spartacist Revolt, National Assembly convened at Weimar and formed a constitution. The Weimar Constitution gave interwar Germany a republican government with federal, democratic features and a strong presidency. The new constitution included the following features: 1.    Elected by universal suffrage 2.    A head of state, the president, elected by universal suffrage 3.    A lower legislative body, the Reichstag, elected by universal suffrage in which all parties would be included by their election strength throughout Germany. 4.    Parties were to be represented in the Reichstag in proportion to party strength in the electorate as a whole. 5.    A head of government, a chancellor (prime minister), responsible to both the president and the Reichstag and chosen, together with his ministers from the majority party or coalition in the Reichstag. 6.    The president could set aside laws and rule by decree in an emergency 7.    The president also could force a chancellor to resign regardless of the Reichstag 8.    The Reichstag conversely had the power to force a chancellor's resignation even if the president desired to keep him in office. E. Further Left Wing and Right-Wing Putsches. The Weimar Republic continued to face a threat to its existence from both the extreme left and the extreme right. 1. In the summer of 1919, an attempt was made to organize a Bavarian Soviet Republic center in Munich in the summer of 1919. Ironically one of the military leaders of this abortive revolt was Ernst Rohm, who later was the head of the Nazi Storm troopers. 2. In 1920, an armed putsch by rightist army officers forced the republican government from Berlin. This revolt was foiled when the labor unions of Berlin halted all public utilities and telecommunications. 3. In 1923, a second rightist coup was attempted in Munich led by retired Field Marshal von Ludendorff and Adolph Hitler. While this "Beer Hall Putsch" was crushed its fanatical ringleader, Hitler, was only given a token sentence in a comfortable jail, in which he wrote his blueprint for Nazism. 4. In 1924, both right wing nationalists and Communists gained strength at the expense of centrist parties parliamentary elections. 4.    This was followed by the election of retired Field Marshal Paul von Hindenberg in 1925 that was considered a victory of the conservative right. F. Weaknesses of the Weimar Government. 1. As the Weimar Republic was attacked by extremists from both left and right, whenever the republic faced economic and social problems, like the inflation and unemployment of 1918-1924 and the Great Depression of 1929-1933, moderate parties lost seats while extreme parties, like the Communists and Nazis, won seats in the Reichstag. 2. The moderate parties were divided, and the ideological enemy the Nazis, the Communists, did not make common cause with the SDs. 3. The Weimar Republic treated the extreme parties and their putsches quite leniently, hence allowing them to regroup and try again. 4. The Weimar Republics reputation among Germans was tainted by it acceptance of the humiliating Versailles Treaty. Reparations, demilitarization, loss of territory, and the "war guilt" clauses were especially despised. 8. The Social Democrats in power had made almost few economic or social reforms. The old imperial bureaucracy was still in the helm; and the army, although smaller, retained its militaristic Prussian traditions by maintaining officers and non-coms as the bulk of its force.. 9. The Weimar Republic confronted to face enormous economic difficultiesinflation and depression. II. Economic and Social Distress.  During World War I, without access to American capital, the Kaisers government attempted to pay for the war by printing large amounts of currency were the "war guilt" clause as it progressed. Instead, it issued large quantities of paper money. This began an inflationary spiral that would continue for five years. A.   Inflation. Germany's defeat affected its currency even more, and inflation continued. By 1923, one dollar, which had been worth about four marks before the war, was worth over four trillion paper marks. Wheelbarrows of bills would be needed to buy a loaf of bread. Individuals and businesses that held their savings in banks or maintained fixed bud gets were devastated. Those individuals and businesses that were in debt paid off their debt quickly with the inflated money. The implementation of the Rentenbank and the Rentenmark, along with U.S. Dawes Plan for reparations payments stabilized the currency and encouraged renewed industrial development by 1925. B.   Germany and the Depression. Soon after the depression of 1929 struck highly industrialized Germany, six million people were unemployed. The depression brought about the rise of the hard left and right parties at the expense of the center. This economic and social roller coaster ride made many Germans believe that the Versailles treaty caused all the vicissitudes that confronted them and this view played into the hands of the Nazis. Both the Nazis and the communists gained seats in the Reichstag in the elections of 1930 and 1932. VI. The Ascendancy of the National Socialists.  The Nazi, or National Socialist party was formally known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party, which originated in 1920. A. Adolph Hitler. Adolph Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. Orphaned at an early age, he drifted to Vienna where he developed a deep hatred for Jews, whom he blamed for his failure to gain either a higher education or recognition as an artist. 1. He moved to Bavaria two years before the beginning of World War I. There he joined the German army. 2. Discharged from the army, he returned to Bavaria where he became one of the first members of what eventually became the Nazi party. 3. "Nazi" is a combination of the first syllable of the German word, national, and the second syllable of the German word for socialist, sozialistische. B. The Beer-Hall Putsch. As mentioned above, the Nazis tried a coup detat in Munich in 1923, which was immediately crushed. Hitler received a lenient and light prison term. 1. While in comfortable prison surroundings, which included use of a secretary, Hitler composed Mien Kemp (My Battle or Struggle), which together with Got fried Feeders Program of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (1920), and Alfred Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century , became the ideological bases of the Nazi party. C.   The Nazi Theories. The Nazis' theories were centered on outrageous race theories and distortions of history. Nazi ideology was so ridiculous on the surface that most did not believe it could catch on with the public until it was too late to do anything about it. 1.    One of the basic elements of Nazi ideology was the belief in the German master race (herrenvolk). Germans were believed to be the master race that had accomplished every major greatness in world history. Nazi ideology believed that it was the destiny of the master race to rule the world; non-Germans (untermenschen) were fit only to be slaves of the herrenvolk. They would be subjugated, destroyed or displaced to make "living space" (lebensraum) for the master race. 2.    Another important ideological tenet of the Nazis claimed that Germany was surrounded by hostile states (Russia, Poland, France, etc.) controlled by Untermenchen trying to destroy Germany and the herrenvolk. 3.    The Nazis also had a perverted concept of popular sovereignty and the general will which emphasized the leader principle (the Führer princip). The Leader (der Führer) governed the German people by a mystical connection to its general will. Every German was supposed to be absolutely loyal to the Nazi party and its Leader. 4.      Virulent anti-Semitism was the most well-known and diabolical element of Nazism. Up until Nazism Jews were probably better off in Germany than in any other country in the world except the United States. The Jews provided the Nazis with a scapegoat; everything wrong with the world was the fault of the Jews. Germans who resented Jewish competition in business and professional life supported the Nazis' bid for power. 5.      Hitler shifted the Nazi ideology around to meet temporary political expedients. When Germany and Japan were allied during World War II, for example, Hitler described the Japanese as "honorary Aryans." D. The Nazi Program. In the early 1930's, the Nazis developed a political based upon: a. Anti-Communism b. Anti-Semitism c. Revision of the Versailles Treaty; d. Renegotiation of war reparations payments; e. The recovery of Germany's lands and colonies. E. The Nazi Tactics and Appeal. 1. Hitler was a clever demagogue who knew how to play on the emotions of desperate and proud Germans caught in the depression. 2. The Nazis general political tactic was to promise changes that would appeal to the greatest number of people; while asking Germans to follow unquestioningly. They used the Versailles Treaty and the Jews as scapegoats for Germans plight. V. The Nazis come to Power. With the elections of July 1932, the Nazis became a plurality in the Reichstag with 230 seats. They were the largest political party, but they did not hold a majority of the seats in the Reichstag, and were having difficulty putting together a coalition. A.    Hitler appointed Chancellor. On January 30, 1933, President von Hindenberg appointed Hitler chancellor. 1.    The coalition government composed of Nazis and conservative nationalists and militarists. 2.    Like their Italian counterparts, many German politicians mistakenly believed that exigencies of coalition government would mitigate the extremism of the Nazis. 3.    Like Mussolini, Hitler did not moderate in power; indeed he became a dictator much faster than his Italian counterpart. 4.    As chancellor, Hitler would not compromise with his coalition and the Reichstag at large; hence he received a vote of no confidence. The Reichstag was paralyzed, and new elections were ordered for March 5, 1933. B.    The Elections of 1933 and the Reichstag Fire. During the election the Reichstag building was set on fire in an act of terror. Hitler and the Nazis claimed that it was the work of Communists, but evidence exists that the Nazis set it themselves to propel themselves into power. 1.    The Nazis persuaded President Von Hindenberg to issue state of siege decrees that suspended freedom of speech and freedom of the press. 2.    The presidential decrees silenced Nazi opponents, and the Nazi Party and its organs used rallies, demonstrations, and storm trooper attacks to assure a Nazi victory 3.    The Nazis still only won 44% of the votes. Their most pliable coalition partners won 8% of the vote. The new Nazi-nationalist government had a majority but not the two-thirds majority necessary to amend the constitution. C.    The Enabling Act. Hitler was able to persuade the Catholic Center Party to support the Nazis with a promise to negotiate a concordat with the Papacy, like Mussolini did, if the Catholics would vote for the Enabling Act. 1.    The Enabling Act (passed 23 March 1933) gave Hitlers government dictatorial powers until April 1, 1937. 2.    Only 94 members of the Reichstag opposed the Enabling Act, and these were all Socialists and Social Democrats. 3.    After the Death of Von Hindenberg in 1934, Hitler was than able to obtain the power to change the constitution by decree. Thus Germany became a totalitarian dictatorship under a party founded upon racism, militarism and aggression.   HISTORY 369: THE WORLD SINCE 1914 Lecture Notes on England and France in the Interwar Period I. Introduction. In the interwar period (1918-1939) the leading nations of Europe were the parliamentary democracies of Great Britain and France. Although the strains of total war had produced the collapse or defeat of the autocratic empires of Russia, Turkey, Austria Hungary and Germany, these centers of parliamentary government in Europe were among the victorious Allies. Nevertheless, governments had manipulated natural and human resources in an uncompromising fashion during the four years of struggle; understandably, the resulting impressions proved indelible. There were prominent advocates in all countries who contended that the exasperated domestic problems could best be solved by continuing war socialism during peacetime. Liberal values in the West were further affected by the rise of totalitarian and dictatorial regimes in Central and Eastern Europe. Initially, the most well-known totalitarian answers to liberal democracy were Italian fascism and Russian communism. In spite of these internal and external problems, the major parliamentary states muddled though and survived. However part of the reason for their weak response to Axis aggression before and in the early stages of World War to can be explained by their interwar development  II. Economic and Social Problems. Britain and France confronted significant dilemmas over the conversion from wartime to a peacetime economy.  A) Demobilization. Demobilized veterans had to be integrated into civilian life.  B) Disruption of Trade. During the war, normal trade had been disrupted; and England and France found it difficult to again trade manufactured goods to pre-war customers. The Americans and the Japanese had taken over many of their international commerce.  C) Indebtedness. Both the British and French governments and economies were deeply in debt at the end of the war. Both expected that war reparations would alleviate this problem, but they fell short of being effective.  D) Depression. A postwar recession and depression in caused widespread unemployment. With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930's, these problems became even more serious.  III. England's Interwar problems. The flush of victory brought about an illusionary prosperity in England in 1919, but late 1920, overproduction led to depression and chronic unemployment. Joblessness would be chronic throughout the twenties, and led to widespread strikes and labor disturbances. One reason for the economic problems was the loss of foreign trade. During the war, the British business lost much of their commerce in Europe, China, India, and Latin America to the American and Japanese businesses. Increased use of oil and electricity both in and out of greatly affected the coal industry, the traditional backbone of . Large debts owed the United States and the growing social welfare segment of government also greatly affected the performance of the British economy.  A) Unemployment. The earlier "National Insurance Act" of 1911 provided benefits to unemployed workers during the depression of 1920-1922, when unemployment rose to over 2 million out of a population of 42 million and remained about there for most of the 1920's.  B) Trade solutions. To arrest the decline in overseas trade, Britain made trade agreements with the Soviet Union (1924, 1927) and made special treaties with the British Dominions and colonies, who were organized into a voluntary international organization known by the late 1920's as the British Commonwealth. Britain had been an champion of free trade, but the strains of depression were leading it toward protective tariffs. The Great Depression made many countries build tariff barriers and further lessened British export sales. Thus Britain was forced to end the gold standard and free trade and establish protective customs taxes.  C) Strikes. Strikes and labor disturbances were frequent in the 1920's, the most significant being the Great Coal Strike of 1926, that led to a general strike in the same year. These never led, however, to political revolution.  D) The Problem of Ireland. The Irish problem was probably Britain's closest and most complex imperial problem of the 20th century, having its roots in religious and ethnic differences going back centuries. Ireland was considered part of Great Britain and was ruled by English landlords. By the late nineteenth century, nationalism had developed among Ireland's Catholic which developed into a movement for home rule and national. At 1918, the Irish rebelled against broken promises of home rule and the strains of war (about 25% of the British army was made up of Irish). The Irish "Home Rule" Bill was promulgated in 1914, but its implementation suspended for the duration war. For over a year, rebellion persisted between the underground Irish Republican Army and Imperial British forces. The Irish as represented by the Sinn Fein ("We Ourselves") party, abandoned the compromise of home rule and autonomy within the British Empire, and instead demanded total independence and separation from Britain. While attempts were made in the 1920's to co-opt the Irish independence movement with new home rule bills, dominion status and other deals. The Irish insisted on complete separation and became the Irish republic with no ties to Britain by the 1930's.  E) From Empire to Commonwealth. The British Empire grew and changed transformed during the interwar period. Britain continued to control its older colonies and protectorates, added to them League of Nations mandates in the Middle East (Trans-Jordan, Iraq and Palestine) and Africa (Tanganyika and Namibia). Overall Britain directly or indirectly controlled 25% of the world's people. The relationship between GB and its dominions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa continued to change. By 1914 these settler colonies became autonomous in their domestic government. A Wartime Imperial meeting declared that the self-governing be considered autonomous nations within an association know as the British Commonwealth. At another imperial conference in 1926 and in a law known as the Statute of Westminster in 1931, England and its dominions became members of a trade and defensive association known as the British Commonwealth of Nations. Each dominion had the right to choose chose its own government and promulgate its own laws. Dominions could accept or reject laws passed by the British government. In spite of virtual independence, the economic, political, and historical bonds between England and the dominions continued within the commonwealth through recognition by the dominions of the sovereignty of the British Crown.  F) Political Changes. While economic problem plagued Britain through most of the interwar period, nonetheless political change did occur.  1) Universal manhood suffrage was finally completed with the final few percent of disenfranchised Englishmen were given their political rights in Britain in 1918, received the franchise in l928.  2) The most important political change was the decline of the Liberal Party and the rise of the Labor Party as the major opponent to the Conservative party in British Politics.  G) Governments and Coalitions. The Conservative party formed most of the governments in British politics during the 1920s. The decline of the Liberal Party and the immaturity of Labour meant that conservatives were in the helm. Conservatives became the largest bloc in Parliament at the end of World War I and maintained a wartime coalition with the weakened Liberals until 1922 and formed most governments between then and 1929 under Stanley Baldwin. For a brief time in 1924. Labor formed a government under Ramsay Macdonald with the support of some of the Liberals. This government was short-lived because of an accusation of collusion with Communists in the recognition of the Soviet government.  1) The British Conservatives, like the Republicans in the United States, lost their supremacy with the onset of the depression. Elections in 1929 saw the Conservatives lost over 150 seats in Parliament, while Labour nearly doubled its representation were most keenly felt by the British public, Ramsay Macdonald, the Labour Party leader, became Prime Minister with a Liberal-Labour coalition cabinet. With the support of some Liberal M.P.'s, Ramsay MacDonald formed Labour's second government in a Labour dominated coalition.  2) the worsening of the depression led to the formation of a broad based coalition government which included ministers from all three parties in 1932 known as the ""National Government. The Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald was its prime minister until Conservative Stanley Baldwin took over in 1935. Baldwin retired in 1937 and was replaced by Neville Chamberlain, who served as Prime Minster of the National Government Coalition until 1940 when he was replaced by Winston Churchill as wartime Prime Minister.  H) Effect on Foreign Policy. British domestic concern with economic problems, particularly the affects of the depression upon unemployment and foreign trade, gravely affected and weakened British response to the aggressive policies of Germany, Japan and Italy in the 1930's.  IV. French Interwar problems. France occupied a more impressive position on the world stage following World War I than it had during the prewar period. Like Great Britain, France expanded it overseas possessions to include the League of Nations mandates over the former Ottoman province of Syria (and Lebanon) in the Middle East, as well, as the former German colonies of Togo and Cameroon in Africa. France also became the main guarantor power of the treaties signed at the Paris Peace Conference. As such maintained the largest armed forces in Europe in the Interwar Period and formulated an intricate system of bilateral and multilateral alliances with the new states of East Central Europe in order to maintain the status quo of the Paris conference. While France suffered more human and material losses during the war than any other of the surviving allied powers, it seemed to have made a phenomenal recovery. Much of northern and eastern France had been devastated by four years of trench warfare. This necessitated a massive reconstruction campaign, financed by reparation payments and loans. The reconstruction entailed the retooling of damaged industries with the most advanced technologies and machinery. While this reconstruction was remarkable, it was superficial in that much of the French nation was damaged psychologically, demographically, and spiritually. The French not only confronted many of the same trade and employment problems that plagued the English, but also had to conduct reconstruction programs in whole provinces destroyed by the war.  A) War Casualties and Damages. French losses during the war included.  1) 5,000,000 killed and wounded. One of out of every ten Frenchmen was killed in the war.  2) Nearly 800,000 residences were destroyed.  3) 20,000 factories, as well as innumerable shops were destroyed  4) over 2000 railway bridges were destroyed.  5) Much of the productive farmland of northern and eastern France was rendered into moonscapes and took years to re cultivate to prewar production levels..  6) Over 1000 towns were leveled by the fighting.  B) Reconstruction and Reparations. These catastrophic losses compelled the French to concern themselves with material reconstruction and security against another invasion.  1) The French government took the responsibility for reconstruction of war-torn areas and for, compensating the war losses of its citizens. It organized bond drives to procure loans from its citizens which would be repaid by expected moneys received from German reparations. These loans and those of made during the war left France with a tremendous national debt in the interwar period.  2) The French plan to use German reparations payments to eventually pay the costs of reconstruction never came to fruition.  3) The new German government, even more of a basket case than France soon fell in arrears of its reparation payments, and the French together with the Belgians occupied the Ruhr industrial to extract payment in kind. This occupation, which lasted nearly two years cost more than the raw materials that were confiscated.  4) The United States, though its representative Charles G. Dawes, formulated a new plan for German reparations known as the Dawes Plan. American money would be lent to and invested in Germany; Germany in turn would pay reparations at a rate lesser than foreseen by the Versailles treaty; and finally both the French and British were to make pay their war debts to the United States and a lesser rate as well.  5) The Dawes Plan and later Young Plan came to naught as a result of the great depression. France financed reconstruction itself through the issuance of bonds.  C. Security, alliances, and Defense. The other Preoccupation of the French government in the interwar period was the defence and security of France from a future attack by a revived Germany.  1) Since neither Britain nor the United States fulfilled their promises regarding the security of Europe following Paris Peace, the French took it upon themselves to develop a security system based upon alliances with the smaller powers of Europe who had benefited by the demise of the central powers, these included: Belgium (1920), Poland (1921), Czechoslovakia (1924), Romania (1926) and Yugoslavia (1927).  2) In addition it sponsored the formation of multilateral defence agreements known as the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia) and the Balkan Entente (Greece, Romania, Turkey, Yugoslavia).  3) Thus the French depended upon a collection of alliances, membership in the League of Nations and maintenance of the largest army in Europe to maintain its peace and security.  4) However the French military prepared for a. stalemated stationary war-a la World War I, and thus spent much of its time, money and energy in constructing a massive and complex system of fortifications along the German Frontier known as the Maginot Line. When push came to shove with Nazi aggression in the late 1930's the French alliance system withered away, chiefly because the French chose not to honor it at Munich. While the French army was frittering away its time and money constructing the Maginot line, other powers, notably Germany, developed military tactics and strategies (Blitzkrieg) using air, armor and mechanized forces which rendered the Maginot Line obsolete.  D) Social/Economic Strains. The Economic and material expenditure for reconstruction and security stagnated other segments of economy and society and left French living standards low and slowed the overall economic recovery of France.  1) the tensions brought about by these problems of economy and society in turn brought about political tensions and fragmentation. The French center and right opposed social an d economic reforms while the left (socialists and communists) sought to bring about significant social and economic changes (nationalization, socialization).  2) This basic ideological impasse and France's multi-party system led to much political infighting and the frequent rise and fall of parliamentary coalition government and cabinets in the interwar period.  E) Recovery and depression. By end of the 1920's, France had achieve a good measure of recovery in agriculture, industry, and commerce and its currency was stabilized.  1) The initial impact of the great depression did not make itself felt in France until 1932 perhaps due to France's well integrated agriculture and industrial segments of the economy. However there after, protective tariffs of other countries bought about a decline in French exports and a resultant fall in prices, unemployment and depression.  F) Governments and Coalitions. As mentioned above, France had a multi-party, parliamentary system, which depended on coalition, rather than single parties to form governments. Because of the economic and social problems that France confronted in the interwar period, political alliances and coalitions were capricious and mercurial in nature. Cabinets and governments rose an fell with alarming frequency, with a turnover of right and left coalitions. Like in Britain, the left parties began to play a more important role in French government in the interwar period.  1) A coalition of Right and centrist parties known as the Bloc National dominated French politics between 1919 and 1924. with the well known leaders. The Bloc's most prominent spokesmen were Georges Clemenceau, Raymond Poincare, and Aristide Briand. The Bloc National called stabilization of French economy and a hard line vis-a vis Germany. They formulated the policies of reconstruction and security as hallmarks of French government in the interwar period. Their conservative and moderate policies were opposed by a growing and fragmented left, consisting of Socialists, Communists, and Anarchosyndicalists. opposed to the radical programs advanced by the Radical, Socialist and Communist parties.  2) In part as a result of the financial difficulties and wrangling over reparations, the Bloc National broke up and in elections of 1924, a left-wing coalition of Socialists and Radicals won a majority and formed the Cartel des Gauches. This government only lasted 16 months when growing inflation, as well as personality and policy differences led to its demise. Six government rose and fell in rapid succession until a Radical/Moderate government for three years  3) The Great depression and its effect on France brought about the growth of a Left coalition known as the Popular front. The left and center left parties formed a coalition known as the Popular Front. The socialist leaders Leon Blum, became premier; and the coalition also had the support of the French Communist Party. Blum's Popular Front government instituted a number of reforms, including forty hour work week, stabilization and regulation of agricultural prices and production, and efforts to restructure the national bank. Blum's moderate reforms were hindered by labor unrest by unions and parties within the coalition which more radical reforms. To deal with strikes and fiscal problems Blum attempted to procure emergency from the French upper house, the Senate. When the Senate rebuffed his request, and Blum resigned and the coalition fell apart..  4) From 1938 until the Fall of France in 1940, a coalition of center parties formed the government. This coalition, led by Edouard Daladier, was besieged by problems of meeting the threat of Nazi Germany with failed alliance system and a misconceived defensive strategy; products of the mistaken policies of previous French governments, LECTURE NOTES ON THE U.S. IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD THE ERA OF THE "TWENTIES" A. The Return to Normalcy: In the decade following WWI, the Republican party and new-found conservatism held the loyalty of most Americans. The people of the U.S. desired to return to peacetime pursuits, and there were some serious economic and social problems to be solved: achieving a balance among the demands of business, labor, and agriculture; coping with imminent large-scale immigration; controlling the prohibition experiment; and combating radicalism without destroying civil liberties. Americans were tired of war and disillusioned by the treaty-making that followed, the people attempted to withdraw from international commitments. With the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations in the Senate on March 19, 1920, Americans turned inward in isolation, once again. In addition, politics in the 1920s saw the old issues go. Progressive reform, imperialism, war, treaty-making--were all forgotten. The vast majority of voters were anxious to escape from Wilsonian idealism and the responsibilities of world leadership. In the presidential campaign of 1920, Republican Senator Warren G. Harding called for "a return to normalcy," a slogan which appealed to war-weary Americans enough that they voted him into ofice by a landslide, and restored the Republican party to the cockpit. But, in spite of America's disgust for events overseas, the country would not be able to isolate itself from the dangerous aftermath of the Versailles Treaty. 1. The Harding Administration: The issue dealt with most extensively in the 1920 campaign was American entry into the League of Nations, but the essence of the election was an expression of disapproval of the Wilson administration, arising out of the animosities of the war years and the disappointments of the postwar period. Harding was personally a handsome man with a lighthearted and warm disposition--quite a change from the cold and righteous Wilson--and he was very aware of his own limited abilities. Decisionmaking, for him, was sheer torture. He enjoyed the pomp, circumstance, and ceremonial functions of the presidency, but he was willing to allow Congress and the Cabinet to provide the country with the leadership it needed. a. Scandals in High Places: Harding could recognize his own limitations, and so, he wisely chose from among the best minds of his times to staff his cabinet. He chose Charles Evans Hughes, former governor of NY and Supreme Court justice, as his Secretary of State; and Andrew Mellon, a Pittsburgh industrialist and financier, as his Secretary of Treasury. But Harding also appointed men like Albert B. Fall of NM as Secretary of Interior, and Harry Daugherty of Ohio as attorney general. Both of these men were friends of the president, and they would bring disgrace and scandal to the administration. There were a number of scandals, alá Grant, but the most spectacular was the Teapot Dome Scandal. Albert Fall convinced Harding to transfer naval oil reserve land at Teapot Dome, WY from the Navy department to the Interior department, where he secretly granted drilling rights to private companies in return for "loans" and "gifts" totalling around $425,000 dollars. The Senate began investigating the incident, and Fall was finally indicted and convicted of bribery, and thus became the first cabinet official in the nation's history to go to jail for dishonoring his office. b. The Washington Conference: The most outstanding achievement of the Harding years was the Washington Conference, organized by Charles Evans Hughes. At the invitation of Harding the five leading naval powers (the U.S., Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) met in 1921 to discuss the reduction of naval armaments, the arms race which had been a leading factor contributing to WWI. However, the emerging agressor in the Pacific by this time was Japan. The most nagging problem was how to curb Japan's expansionism, while reducing military spending so that the national debt could be paid off. Three treaties were to emerge from the Washington Conference: The Five Power Pact--the U.S. made tremendous concessions in this treaty. A ratio of naval tonnage was drawn up and the U.S. and G.B. were allowed 500,000 tons apiece; Japan, 315,000 tons, while France and Italy were allowed 172,000 tons each. The Four Power Pact--Japan, China, England, and the U.S. agreed to maintain the status quo in fortifying insular possessions; to respect each others possessions, and to consult if a conflict broke out among the signers. Practically, because the U.S. kept its pledge, this meant that American defenses in the Pacific from Samoa to the Aleutians remained unfortified, while Japan fortified its mandate islands to the teeth. The U.S. was not able to check on Japan's compliance because it hadn't joined the League of Nations. The Nine Power Pact--All the powers (the U.S., G.B., France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, and China) all agreed to respect the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence of China; to help China set up a stable government, and to guarantee equal commercial opportunity for all in China. These open door sentiments were fine, just as long as they were enforced, but the U.S., by withdrawing into isolation, was withdrawing from enforcement, and no country knew this better than Japan. 2. The Coolidge Administration: On August 2, 1923, Harding died suddenly of a stroke, and was replaced by his vice-president, "Silent Cal" Coolidge of Vermont, who ran for the presidency in his own right in 1924. The U.S. was at the peak of its postwar prosperity under Coolidge's administration. But, all was not well in the world. WWI had left many issued unresolved, and those which had been attacked, were mismanaged, and thus, the post-war peace was unstable at best, and the breeding ground for smoldering resentment, future aggression, nationalistic fanaticism. a. The Weaknesses of the League: Part of the problem lay with the League of Nations itself. The organization suffered from a loss of prestige at the start when the parent of the idea, the U.S., one of the world's leading powers, failed to become a member of its own brainchild. In addition, the League lacked the means to punish or to take action against transgressors. Those nations which drew criticism from the League simply withdrew, as Germany would do in 1933. Finally, the leading League nations were unwilling to undertake concerted actions against transgressors when their own interests weren't directly at stake. The U.S. did manage to get involved with the League through the backdoor, by joining in non-political activities. b. The Failure of the Treaty of Lausanne: The other part of the problem lay with the Lausanne system itself. All the major powers were bent on making Germany suffer for WWI, and had heaped tremedous reparations bills on it following the war. Germany had also been made to accept a "guilt" clause for starting the war. Like the other Powers, the U.S. was committed to collecting its war debts from Germany, but from the Allies, as well. But the Allies made their debt payments contingent on whatever they were able to get from Germany. Therefore to collect its debts, the U.S. was forced to undertake the financing of Germany's reparations payments. Germany's economy was enslaved to the repayment of reparations, while the society was obliged to accept full responsibility for even the secret agreements of others! Between the monster inflation of the early 20s and the disastrous stockmarket crash in 29, the German people proved to be fertile ground for the rise of Adolf Hitler and his brand of fascism. At Lausanne, in 1933, Hitler repudiated all reparations payments; and, since the Allies had hitched their own debt payments to the reparations they received, they likewise repudiated their debts. This then, was the ironic situation that the U.S. found itself in: as a victor in WWI, the U.S. footed both the German reparations bill as well as the Allied debts! The only country to repay its debts to the U.S. in full was Finland. c. The Kellogg-Briand Pact: Under the sponsorship of Secretary of State Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand, a remarkable pact was drawn up in 1928 and signed by most nations of the world. They all agreed to outlaw war as a means of settling international disputes! The Kellogg-Briand Pact's chief weakness, however, was that it provided no means of enforcement (that's why it was so easy to get 62 nations, armed to the teeth, to agree to the document). They all hoped that public opinion would provide the coercion necessary. Anyway, the pact proved to be an idealistic and empty gesture.     THE 'ROARING" TWENTIES A. The Prosperous Twenties: Calvin Coolidge's motto was that "the business of America is business," so his administration from 1924-28 saw the country enjoying an unprecendented business boom. Industrial activity rose to all-time highs, and the national wealth soared. Wages were high, and the average family enjoyed a larger income than ever before. The nation went on a buying spree. Cars, radios, new homes, and furniture were in tremendous demand. Not happy with buying with cash, many people bought on the installment plan. That is, they paid a small sum down and promised to pay the bablance in the future. Many also used their savings to speculate wildly on the stock market in order to get rich quick. Optimism ran riot, and people expected prosperity to last forever (a natural idea, since it took so much heartache to bring it about). The era was a bundle of contradictions, continuous ferment, and trial and error. 1. Culture(?): Unfortunately, the seamy side of the Twenties was also the interesting side. a. Political Intolerance: The era saw the rise of political intolerance in the form of the "Red Scare" and the Sacco and Vanzetti trial. Hysterical fears of Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917, which led to the formation of a tiny communist party in the U.S., continued to have a tremendous effect of American thinking. This national paranoia was heightened by an epidemic of strikes following the war's end. Americans denounced "radical" foreign ideas, condemned "un-American" lifestyles, and led a nation-wide crusade against suspected left-wingers under the direction of A. Mitchell Palmer. Thousands of radicals were rounded up in these "Palmer Raids," and hundreds found guilty were deported. In the (Nicola) Sacco and (Bartolomeo) Vanzetti Trial, two Italian immigrant atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers were convicted of a payroll robbery-murder that they didn't commit. What was really on trial was their anarchist and pacifist sentiments. b. Xenophobia: Xenophobic intolerance was also on the rise. Henry Ford sponsored the publication of a vicious and obviously forged tract called "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" which tried to prove that the Jews were plotting to take over the world. Ford later retracted his support and apoligised for his actions. Ku Klux Klan membership mushroomed and was anti- everything: anti-black, anti-Catholic, anti-foreign, anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-gambling, anti-adultery, etc. Congress responded to Americans' anti-immigrant feelings by passing the Emergency Quota Act (1921) which set the quota at 3% and later the Immigration Act of 1924, which set the quota at 2%. c. Religion and Sex: The "Scopes Monkey Trial" (1924) divided the country, and showed how deep fundamentalism ran in American society, especially the South. John T. Scopes answered an ad placed in a Tennessee newspaper by the ACLU in 1925, which asked for a teacher who would volunteer to teach the theory of evolution in public schools, and thus become a legal test-case guinea pig. Church membership grew and people like Billy Sunday and Aimee Semple MacPherson became the celebrities of their day by attracting thousands to tent revivals all over the country. The clash of the skeptical spirit of science as represented by Clarence Darrow and dogmatic faith in the form of William Jennings Bryan attracted international attention. Paradoxically, the Twenties were also a period of feminine revolt against puritan restraints. Young women flocked to become "flappers." They worked for their own money at hundreds of new jobs, wore short skirts, cloche hats, and lots of makeup, smoked openly, hung out with young men, and emulated the big movie star of the era, Clara Bow, the "It" girl. d. Lawlessness: Much of the degeneration of the Twenties was the result of the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act which enforced national prohibition. Bootlegging became a shadow industry, and gangsterism flourished. No one could obey such an obviously idealistic, moralistic law and, as a result, general respect for the law in other areas began to erode, followed in close turn by the erosion of morality. The protection racket, the numbers racket, loan-sharking, prostitution, narcotics, and vendetta-style gangland murders became common. Unfortunately, many Americans became secretly sympathetic to to the gangsters, who fostered this attitude by appearing as latter-day Robin Hoods to the general public. Thus it was, that the 18th Amendment had precisely the opposite effect of its intention. e. The Renaissance of Black Culture: Music entered the "Jazz Age," and composers of every flavor began to exploit its possibilities. Blacks, who were segregated in nearly every other facet of public life, found themselves in great demand as jazz musicians, enjoyed by all races. One theory why Blacks were so productive during the Twenties may be attributed to segregation itself, ironically. "Jim Crow" laws tended to keep Black society cohesive and whole, not subject to the inroads of the general, "white" culture surrounding them. It's a sad commentary that Black society was probably never healthier before or since. They were no longer subject either to the whims and vagaries of their masters (as they had been under slavery), or to the cultural degredation imposed by force-draft integration of the 1960s, Black families could now stay together; while the isolations imposed by segregation encouraged Blacks to go into all manner of professions to meet their own needs. They were an island unto themselves in the 1920s--and they were flourishing. White composers such as George Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Hoagy Carmichael; and, musicians such as Glenn Miller, Bix Beiderbecke, Benny Goodman, Jimmy & Tommy Dorsey, Harry James, Gene Krupa, and Artie Shaw could only imitate the great creative genius of the Black musicians who typically couldn't even read music. Within jazz, there are many different permutations: blues, ragtime, New Orleans (or Dixieland), swing, bebop, and progressive. Sadly, this uniquely American contribution to world music has found a more appreciative audience abroad than at home. Some Black performers, such as Josephine Baker, were so disillusioned by their better foreign reception that they emigrated to Europe and spent their careers there. B. Herbert Hoover's Administration: When Coolidge refused to run for a second term in 1928, the Republicans nominated Herbert Hoover, a mining engineer and businessman from California. He had organized war relief in Europe during the War, and had also served as Secretary of Commerce under both Harding and Coolidge. He came to the White House promising to continue the "Coolidge Prosperity," but four years later he was cursed and rejected by the whole nation. 1. The Stock Market Crash--October 24, 1929: The frenetic all-night party atmosphere of the Roaring Twenties came to an abrupt end on October 24, 1929 with the Stock Market crash which ushered in the Great Depression. Historians and economists have been able to pinpoint several reasons why the market crashed so hard. First, the prosperity of the Twenties was unevenly distributed among the various parts of the American economy--farmers and unskilled workers were excluded with the result that the nation's productive capacity was greater than its capacity to consume. Second, the tariff and war debt policies of the Republican administrations of the 1920s had cut down the foreign market for American goods. Third, many Americans had bought on a 10% margin; that is, they put up part of the price of the stock and owed the balance. When their margin was lost, they were forced to sell their stock at whatever price they could get for it. And finally, easy money policies led to an inordinate expansion of credit and installment buying and fantastic speculation in the stock market, especially in the highly speculative enterprises. The depression stateside produced severe effects abroad, especially in Europe, where many countries had not fully recovered from the aftermath of WWI. In the U.S., during the depth of the depression (1933), there were 16 million unemployed--or about 1/3 of the workforce. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT AND THE "NEW DEAL" A. Hoover Tries to Fight the Depression: When the economy was hit by the stock market crash, it was Herbert Hoover's misfortune to be in the White House during the most difficult phase of the ensuing depression. Throughout his tenure, he continued to voice optimism because he sincerely believed that periodic depressions were a natural part of the business cycle. "Prosperity is just around the corner," he would always say; and he always refused to allow the government to help the jobless, homeless, and starving through relief programs because he saw these as socialistic or communistic. Furthermore, no one could envision at the time just how long the depression would last. And thus, in spite of the "too-little, too-late" public works program that he created, the growing misery, lengthening bread lines, and "Hoovervilles" of cardboard shacks, all left the lasting impression of Hoover as some kind of latter-day Nero who fiddled while Rome burned. 1. Some Sobering Statistics: Between 1929 and 1932, some 85,000 businesses failed, with assets totalling about $4.5 billion; and, by 1932, more than 14 million people were unemployed. The nation's income in 1929 was $81 billion, by 1932 in had dropped to $41 billion, while the savings in 9 million bank accounts were wiped out to meet household expenses. Ironically, Bernard E. Smith make a fortune in the stock market by following the rule of thumb that the market would decline every time Hoover appeared in public saying that "prosperity is just around the corner." 2. The "Bonus Army": In May, 1932, approximately 1000 unemployed ex-servicemen from WWI marched to Washington, D.C., declaring that they would remain there until Congress authorized the immediate cash payment of of the 20 year bonus voted in 1924 for WWI vets. This "Bonus Army" was joined by yet more vets until there were about 15 thousand of them in the city. Most eventually disbanded and went home but there were still a hard core of them who refused to go home. Hoover believed these men might resort to some kind of violence and so he ordered the infantry, cavalry, and tank corps to drive them out. B. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the First New Deal: The Republican party was blamed for the depression and this paved the way for the election of the Democratic candidate of 1932--F.D.R., who stressed "a new deal" for the "forgotten man," while emphasizing that the Democrats believed it to be the responsibility of the federal government to promote the welfare and well-being of the great masses of the people. As a result, the Democrats were voted into office with a landslide: 42 states to 4. In his first inaugural address, Roosevelt declared that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself," and pledged strong executive leadership to resolve the Depression. In spite of his handicap (stricken with Polio in 1921), Roosevelt was an activist, and set out to deal with the Depression almost as soon as he was elected. From March to June, 1933, during "The Hundred Days" Roosevelt launched the First New Deal program, whose two-fold object was relief, recovery, and reform, and the prevention of future depressions. 1. Financial Reforms to End the Banking Crisis: Roosevelt's first official act was to declare a national banking holiday. All banks were closed until the Treasury department could investigate the financial condition of the nation's banks. This had the effect of stopping further bank "runs." (which happens when depositors lose confidence in a bank, become panicky, and rush to withdraw their money) Only healthy banks were allowed to reopen. In the first of Roosevelt's many radio broadcasts, or fireside chats, he reassured the public that the reopened banks were backed by the resources of the Federal government and were "safe." This helped to restore confidence and ended the banking crisis. In addition, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was established in 1933 to insure depositors' bank accounts. This measure protects bank depositors from the loss of their savings up to $100,000 at present in the event of a bank failure. 2. Relief for the Unemployed: The Federal government undertook the creation of many agencies and bureaus during the 30s for relief and assistance. These were sarcastically known as the "Alphabet Soup Agencies" for the proliferation of their acronyms. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), established in 1933 made large sums of taxpayers' dollars available to local and state agencies for direct relief to the unemployed. Millions of families received cash to help pay for food, clothing, and shelter. The Public Works Administration (PWA) and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) put millions of jobless to work on building highways, bridges, schools, hospitals, parks, and severs. Artists, writers, actors, musicians, and white-collar workers were employed on projects suited to their talents. (the slave narratives) The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided jobs for men between the ages of 18 and 25, who worked on such conservation projects as reforestation, soil conservation, flood control, and road construction. By 1941, more than 2 million young men had been employed by the CCC. 3. Aid for the Recovery of Industry: Roosevelt also created the Export-Import Bank to extend loans to American manufacturers and exporters wanting to do business with foreign countries; while the Trade Agreements Act (1934) authorized the president to negotiate reciprocal trade agreements with other nations. 4. Conservation of the Nation's Resources: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was established in 1933 to develop the resources of the Tennessee River Valley, which includes parts of seven states (TN, VA, KY, NC, GA, AL, MS). The agency erected dams and power plants along the Tennessee River and its tributaries, built power lines, and provided low-cost electric power to farms, industries, and communities of the region. As a result of the TVA, the standard of living of the appx. 3 million inhabitants of the Tennessee Valley were quickly raised. During WWII, the TVA provided a vital military service by providing electricity to the atomic energy plant at Oak Ridge, TN, which was, at the time, working on the development of the Atomic bomb. In other parts of the country, the Federal government also built huge dams, among them Hoover Dam on the Colorado (it was begun during Hoover's administration and completed in 1936, but because of Hoover's unpopularity, it was originally named Boulder Dam); Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River; and the Shasta Dam on the Sacramento River. 5. The Second New Deal: In the off-year congressional elections of 1934, the Roosevelt administration received a vote of confidence from the public by bringing more New Deal committed Democrats to office. This encouraged Roosevelt to expand his program to include a new group of projects to help the underprivileged throughout the country. In 1935, he began to implement a comprehensive program of social reform, having as its basic objective to provide security against unemployment, illness, the cares of old age, and the uncertainty of dependency upon family or friends. This plan was known as the Second New Deal, and targeted laborers and farmers, almost exclusively. The Social Security Act (1935) provided for the payment of pensions to elderly persons and established a cooperative federal-state plan of unemployment insurance; while, the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) established minimum wages and maximum working hours for labor. One of the reasons Roosevelt's policies swung toward the leftist extreme was the appeal of other, even more radical advocates such as Louisiana's Democratic governor and U.S. senator, Huey P. Long, who advocated the "Share our Wealth" movement to guarantee every family of the nation a homestead worth $5000 and a minimum annual income of $2000! 6. Roosevelt and the Supreme Court: Following the 1936 elections against Kansas Governor Alf Landon, F.D.R. seemed to be at the peak of his power and prestige. But after the elections, many of his most progressive ideas, such as the National Recovery Administration, the Agricultural Administration, the Securities and Exchange Commission, a coal act and a bankruptcy act, were ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, which was dominated by aging, conservative Republicans. In all, they shot down 11 of Roosevelt's New Deal measures, to the delight of conservative Wall Street executives and corporate leaders. At any rate, Roosevelt believed he had a mandate in his reelection, and so went on the offensive against the Supreme Court by sponsoring the Reorganization Plan, a bill which would allow the president to appoint an additional justice for each member reaching the age of 70 (of whom there were 6). Thus Roosevelt tried to "pack" the Supreme Court with judges who would be sympathetic to New Deal legislation. C. Evaluation and Critique of the New Deal: The years of the New Deal constituted one of the most controversial periods in the nation's history. Its critics believed that it was destroying the traditional American way of life by encouraging government intrusiveness and by making traditionally independent and self-reliant Americans dependent upon government largesse. The conservatives, especially in the business arena, argued that the New Deal was undermining the spirit of free enterprise that had made the country great, and was contributing to accustoming Americans to walking down the primrose path to socialism. Protests became louder as the costs of the program contributed tremendously to the national debt, which rose from $19 1/2 billion in 1932 to $49 billion in 1941; and, especially when Roosevelt broke the two term tradition. On the other hand, the supporters of the New Deal claimed that the program had saved the country from economic and social disaster, restored the confidence of the public, spurred the nation's progress toward economic and social democracy, and may have even staved off communist takeover.      LECTURE NOTES: THE OCCUPATION OF EUROPE, 1939-1945 I. Nazi Occupation Policies.  A) Racial Policies. 1) Herrenvolk (Aryan Master race) a) Germans b) Scandinavians (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes). c) Dutch, Flemish, English d) Swiss 2) Untermenschen a) Jews b) Gypsies c) Slavs (Czechs, Poles, Serbs, Russians, Ukrainians, Belorussians)  3) Other non-Aryans a) Latins (Italians, French, Spanish, Romanians, Portugese, etc.) b) Finns and Balts (Finns, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Hungarians, etc.) c) Miscellaneous (Greeks, Albanians, etc.) d) Honorary Aryans (French, Croats, Bulgarians, Japanese, and others who "look" aryan). 4) Persecution. a) Relocation and Dislocation, Elimination of Elites.(Use of Einsatzgruppen, SS Police and Auxiliary forces) b) Reservations. c) Slave Labor. d) Extermination. (Use of Einsatzgruppen , SS Police and Auxiliary forces). B) Economic Exploitation. 1) Syphoning off of Raw materials (Romanian oil). 2) Control of Industry (Skoda works of Czechoslovakia) 3) Food requisitions (Greece and elsewhere) C) Mobilization of Resources. 1) Forced labor (Frees Germans for the Front) 2) Slave labor (From Untermenschen) 3) Volunteer forces for internal security (Police, Gendarmes, militia, Security Battalions, Ustashi). 4) Pro-Axis forces in the War effort. (Italians, Romanians, Hungarians, Slovaks) 5) Volunteer forces for the S.S. (Aryan, Volkdeutsch , Scandinavian, Baltics, Albanians, Bosnians). 6) Volunteer forces for the Wehrmacht (Vlasovs army, Cossacks, Moroccans, etc.)  II. The Occupation of Europe. A) The Greater Reich. 1) Germany 2) Austria 3) Reichprotectorates (Czech Lands, Holland, Belgium, Alsace and Lorraine, Luxemburg, Western Poland) 4) Potential Parts of Reich (Scandinavia, Switzerland) 5) To be inhabitated by Aryans and Volkdeutsch. 6) Non- Aryans are to be driven out or liquidated. B) The Pro-Axis Collaborating Regimes. 1) Italy (junior partner of the Axis, with parts of Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, North Africa). 2) Hungary (with parts of Ruthenia, Slovakia, and Transylvania). 3) Romania (with Bessarabia and Transnistria, but minus parts of Transylvania and Dobrudja, Vienna Awards).  4) Bulgaria (with Macedonia, Thrace, and part of Dobrudja). 5) Croatia (Croatia with Bosnia-Herzegovina but minus most of Dalmatia). C) The Occupied Countries. Conflict of German civil, military ans SS Atuhorities. Collaboration.  1) Scandinavia and the Low Countries. a) Denmark. b) Norway. c) Holland. d) Belgium.  2) France. a) Northern France. b) Vichy France. c) The French Colonies.  3) The Balkans. a) Greece. b) Yugoslavia. c) Albania.  4) Poland. a) The Government General b) Harshness c) Reservation.  5) The Soviet Union. III. Resistance.  A) Forms of Resistance.  1) Passive (Denmark, Holland, Belgium). a) Propaganda. b) Saving the Jews. c) Espionage.  d) Economic sabotage 2) Armed Resistance. a) Urban and rural b) Assassinations c) Guerrilla Warfare.  3) Differences between Eastern and Western Europe. a) Terrain b) martial tradition. c) proximity to arms.  B) Guerrillas and Partisans. 1) Norway (Milorg) 2) France (FFI, etc., maquis) 3) Italy (Action Party, Communists, Italian Social Republic) 4) Yugoslavia (Partisans vs. Chetniks vs. Ustashi) 5) Greece (ELAS vs. EDES vs. EKKA) 6) Albania (Balli Kombetare vs. Partisans VS. Legaliteti). 7) Poland (Armija Krajowa vs. Armija Ludowa) 8) Bulgaria (Leftist partisans vs. Bulgarian police and army) C) Reprisals. 1) Executions 2) Destruction of Villages 3) Concentration camps. 4) Raised resistance rather than ended it. D) Politics of Resistance. 1) Goal of Resistance organization. a) assure ascendency of particular group at the end of the occuation. b) resist the occupation. c) cooperate with the allied war effort.  2) Right vs. Left. in Greece, Yugoslavia, Poland, Albania, lesser extent elsewhere.  3) Home parties vs. Exile government. 4) Collaborationist governments vs. Exile governments. 5) struggle in French, Dutch, Belgian and Danish colonies E) Allied Missions. 1) Intelligence. 2) Propaganda 3) sabotage. 4) Strategic deception. 5) Tying down more axis troops IV. Conclusion. The Impact of Resistance. A mixed bag. War effort. Post-war outcomes. HISTORY 369: WORLD IN THE 20TH CENTURY --The Consequences of the Second World War. I. Destruction of the Second World War.   A) Casualties. 17,000,000 KIA, 18,000,000 civilians.   Soviet. 7.5 million military, 13 million civilian.   Chinese. 2.5 million to 13 million.  German. 3,000, 0000 military, 500,000 to 1,000,000 civilian  Japanese. 1.5 million military, 500,000 civilian   Italy. 400,000 military, 100,000 civilian  Britain and France. 400,000 military, 100,000 civlian each  The United States. 500,000 military, few thousand civilian  Poland. 300,000 military, 7 million civilians (3 million Jews).  Yugoslavia. 400,000 military, 100,000 civilian   Greece. 150,000 military, 500,000 civilian.   B) Displaced persons and refugees. 30,000,000.   German Volkdeutsch--9,000,000 frokm Poland, 3 million from Sudetenland, Baltic, elswhere.  Slave labor and concentration camp victims.   Repatriated collaborators.  Others.  C) Economic Destruction. 4,000,000,000,000. 4 trillion dollars  Thousands of Towns, villages destroyed. Battlegrounds, air attack, reprisal. Germany, Italy, Japan, Soviet Union.  Industrial complex, communications, transportation, resources, agriculture crippled.  Starvation, disease. cholera, typhus.  Burma, Philippines, China, Japan in Asia.  II. Economic Recovery.  A) Western Europe.  German Reparations.  The Winter of 1945-1946.  France and Germany.  Other Countries.  B) Eastern Europe.  The Soviet Union.  The Former Axis Sattelites: Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria  Poland and Czechoslovakia.  The Partisan Republics: Albania and Yugoslavia   Greece and Turkey  III. Towards Cold War.  A) Occupation Zones & Zones of Influence.   Anglo-Americans in Italy, France, W. Europe.   Soviet Union in Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, E. Europe.   Four-power partition of Germany and Austria.   Stalin-Churchill Deal over Balkans.  Romania--90-10.  Bulgaria--75-25.  Hungary--50-50.  Yugoslavia--50-50.  Greece--10-90.  Finland.  B) Expansion of the Soviet Union.  Finland, Baltic States.  E. Poland (Bukovina, Bessarabia).  Romania (Bukovina, Bessarabia).  E. Prussia (Kaliningrad-Königsberg).  Czechoslovakia (Subcarpathian Ruthenia/Transcarpathian Ukraine).  Sakhalin, Kuriles, Manchuria influence.  C) Territorial Changes.  Poland (E. Prussia, Poznan, Oder-Neisse Line).   Minor adjustments elsewhere.  Trieste, Istria, Dalmatian Islands and towns to Yugoslavia.   Dodecanese Islands to Greece.  China restored, Colonies returned, Korea Independent.  D) Division of Europe.  Western Europe--Return to the Past.  Parliamentary Governments.  U. S. Aid.  Marshall Plan.  Restoration of Germany  Truman Doctrine for Greece and Turkey.  Eastern Europe--Sovietization, 1945-1948.  The Former Axis Sattelites: Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria   Poland--Warsaw Uprising, Brits in Greece.  Czechoslovakia--Another Finland?  Partisan Revolutions--Yugoslavia, Albania, failure in Greece.  Factors in Soviet Domination.  Native Communist Parties.  Coalitions and Popular or National Liberation Fronts.  Key Ministries--Interior, War, Labor.  Purges and Salami tactics..  Control of the Police and Army.  Red Army.  Sovietization in Steps.  E) In the Shadow of the Superpowers.   New Power Equation.  Defeat of Germany, Italy, and Japan.  Weakness of France and Britain.  Vacuum in Europe and Asia.  Division of Europe.  F) Turmoil and Confrontation in Asia over Decolonialization.   Two powers begin to see who will fill vacuum.   American views..  Looting and reparation of Germany and Axis Satellites.   Sovietization of Eastern Europe--Agression toward west.  Threats in Greece, Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East.  Adopts Churchillian view of S. U. --Iron Curtain. He made deals out of office.  Soviet and Revisionist American views.  U.S. Reneging on Lend Lease--Aug. 1945. 13 Billion vs. 30 Billion.  Stifling of Communist Parties in France, Italy, Greece.  Fear of U.S. A-Bomb.  Marshall plan used for Economic domination..  Sovietization defensive.  Envy of American Wartime growth and Prosperity.   Two versions of World War II and origins of Cold War.   American.  Soviet.  Revisionism.  Lecture: The Onset of the Cold War  I. The Super Powers.  The first phases of the Cold War.  Unlike previous conlicts, not a direct military confrontation, although wars were fought in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan and elsewhere as part of this conflict.  A prolonged struggle that pitted the ideologies, economies, societies and cultures  Decided which political/economic system would prevail through much of the world. The single-party Communist system of the S U and Eastern Europe, or the pluralistic Capitalist (mixed) system as represented by the U S and Western Europe?  Development of nuclear weapons made direct confrontation virtually unthinkable.  Instead the conflict was mostly fought witrh diplomacy, propaganda, espionage, and irregular wars in the former colonial world.   Became known as the Cold War and it lasted until the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.  A. United States.  In 1945, the U. S. militarily and economically the most powerful nation in the world.  Suffered 500,000 combat deaths and many other casualties.   Mainland was not bombed, invaded, or occupied.  It became the "Arsenal of Democracy," its industry growing exponentially to meet the needs of the war effort.  The United States armed forces in 1945.   The largest navy and the most well supplied army and air corps in the world.  Had sole control of the atomic bomb, the most powerful strategic arm in the world  Nevertheless, the United States demobilized as soon as the war was over.  American armed forces were reduced from 13 million personel in 1945 to about 1.5 million personel in 1947  The United States Economy  43% of world's electricity in 1947.  57% of world's steel in 1947.  63% of world's oil in 1947.  the highest share of the world's total economy held by one country in history.  Part of the reason for this was that the economies of most of the other major powers were in a shambles due to the war.  B. Soviet Union.  It suffered most losses during the war  Nonetheless came out of it as the second most powerful nation in the world  Tremendous military and economic capacity.   Soviet Losses during WWII  Much of the heaviest fighting in World War II occurred on Soviet soil.  As such the military, civilian and economic losses of the Soviet Union were the highest in the war.  7.5 million military deaths.  13 million civilian deaths.  Many towns, villages, industries, transportation facilities, farms destroyed.  Soviet Military and Economic Capacity. The Soviet Union was able, to be powerful from the WWII because:  It moved much of its industrial base eastward during the war.  It made good part of its losses from requisitions and reparations from defeated Axis regions like Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany and Manchuria,  It continued to maintain the largest standing army in the World.  Because of the losses of the war, the Soviets occupied and eventually integrated much of Eastern Europe as "allies".  To serve as a buffer zone and an area of economic interest.   To extend the Communist system beyond the borders of the Soviet Union.  II. The United Nations.  Place of both conflict and concilialtion for the two super powers  New intrernational organization founded during World War II  Successor of the defunct League of Nations.   A) Founding and Charter.  The San Francisco International Conference of April-June 1945 formulated a charter for the United Nations  the first member nations (51 in all) agreed use this new organization "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetimc has brought untold sorrow to mankind."  consisted of the General Assembly, the Security Council, and other components.  B) General Assembly .  The main representative body.  To meet annually to address general problems, pass resolutions, and vote on the entry of new members.  Every member nation is represented in this body.  Today the member nations number nearly 200.   C) Security Council.  To function year round and was to act in dealing with international problems and emergencies that would need immediate action.   Representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, China, France were to serve as permanent members of the council   six, later ten, representatives of other member nations, chosen by the assembly, were to serve two year terms on the council.  Each permanent member of the Security Council would have veto power.  the Security Council could take no action unless all five pemmanent members agreed.  Super Powers have used the Veto on a number of occasions to further their own policies and to hinder their rival's policies.   D) The Secretariat and Other Components .  The Secretariat, under a Secretary-General elected by the General assembly  organizes and manages the UN Staff  coordinates activities of numerous UN organization nand agencies.  these include  the International Court of Justice at the Hague   UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Recovery Agency)   UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)  FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)  WHO (World Health Organization)  E) Strengths.  Unlike the League of Nations, every major post-war power agreed to join and serve on the security council.  charter included the possiblity of using the armed forces of member nations to keep the peace  organization of "Police Actions" and peacekeeping forces.  could be utilized to enforce UN decisions and bring about the end of a number of smaller wars.  F) Weaknesses.  If one of the five permanent members of the Security Council vetoed a course of action, the UN could not act in real emergencies.  the Soviet Union, the United States and other powers have used the Veto on a number of occasions and thus rendered the UN Security Council impotent.  The UN has had some success through its agencies in dealing with social, economic and cultural issues.  It has also served as a forum to air international disputes and has been able to prevent the outbreak of numerous disputes into wars.  In general, the UN was unable to deal with superpower rivalry and the resultant threat of nuclear war.  III. Nuclear Threat.  A) Use in World War II.  At Hiroshima and Nagasaki, just two of these Atomic Bombs killed over 120,000 people.  Destruction of the atomic bomb not limited to explosion   later radioactive fallout cause more deaths across a much broader area.  B) Soviet-American Rivalry.  Soviets did not want the US to maintain a monopooly on the weapon.  Soviets began a crash program to have their own atomic bomb  tested the first Soviet atomic bomb tested in Siberia in 1949.  marked the end of the American nuclear monopoly.  Since both superpowers had the bomb, brought about "a balance of terror."  C) The Hydrogen Bomb.  The more destructive hydrogen bomb tested by US in 1952.  hydrogen bomb tested by SU in 1953.  Superpowers competed in developing nuclear weapons   Atomic Bomb  Hydrogen Bomb  Neutron Bomb  Superpowers competed in developing delivery systems.   Long range bombers  Guided missles  IRBM's (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles)   ICBM's (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)   MERVS (Multiple Entry Warheads)  D) Arms Race.  Costly and could in end with Armageddon.  US and SU tried to find ways to limit or slow this arms race through negotiations and treaties.  Test -Ban Treaties.  Disarmament Treaties  IV. Europe in Shambles.  Destruction of the Second World War. [SEE ABOVE]   Economic Misery compounded by Nature.  The winter of 1946 1947 was the coldest in living memory, and fuel supplies were disastrously low.  V. A Divided Germany.  about 4 million military and civilian deaths.  Many towns, villages, industries, transportation facilities, farms destroyed.  One in ten facroies functioning in some areas  A) Yalta.  Stalin called for permanent division of Germany   Churchill and Roosevelt expected temporary division   agreement on four occupation zones: US, British French and Soviet Zones  US (South)  British (North)  French (Extreme West)  Soviet (East)  The western zones developed pluralistic governments and mixed market/socialist economies  Eastern Zone single party government and cenmtrally planned economy, like the Soviet Union  B) The German State Treaty and the Two Germanies.   Western zones allowed to unite in 1949.  Became known as the Federal Republic of Germany, oriented toward the US.  Eastern Zone, including Berlin, organized into the German Democratic Republic, oriented toward the SU.  Treaty recognizing a divided Germany sign by major powers in 1955.  Ends with German reunification in 1989.  C) The Nuremberg trials  Nazi officials put on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity.  held in Nuremberg during 1946.  Nazis leaders executed. 7 imprisoned, 3 were acquitted.  Set precedent for later war crimes trials  Ohter Nazis and Japanese tried,  Some questions  VI. A Divided Europe.  A) The Eastern Bloc Emerges.  Soviet initially occupied Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and eastern Germany.  First three axis sattelites occupied longer.   local Communists in resistance movements.  other Communists spent war in Moscow  both groups loyal to Soviets.  Communists dominated post war coalition governments in Eastern Europe.  gained control of the police, police, courts, the media. Soon they took over completely.  Communist governments were in power in all of these countries by 1948, as well as in Albania and Yugoslavia.  Albania and Yugoslavia had Communist-dominated partisan movements which established soviet style governments.  B) Tito and Yugoslavia .  Josip Broz "Tito" led Yugoslav partisan movement against the Axis occupation.  Most of Yugoslavia liberatec by Partisans,,not by the Red Army.  Tito a nationalist as well as a communist.   Did not want to be dominated by Stalin.  Stalin viewed Tito as trying to become a Balkan Stalin by attempting to form an dominate a "Balkan Federation" consisting of Albania, Bulgaria, and the Greek Communist movement.  Led to a Tito-Stalin Split.  Yugoslavia would tilt to the west and would eventually be neutral  Tito became one of the leaders of the non-alligned movement of mostly former colonial countires of Africa and Asia who wanted to be neutral in the Cold War  Along witht Nehru of India and Nassar of Egypt.  C) The "Iron Curtain."  According to Winston Churchill. an iron curtain divided Europe into two political regions: a mostly pluralistic Western Europe and a totalitarian Eastern Europe.  "A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe . . . These famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow."  D) The Truman Doctrine.  responded with the policy of containment and the truman doctrine.  containment meant containing communist expansion the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.  This policy toward came to be called the Truman Doctrine.  Said that US would aid countires resisting external aggression or internal insurgency.  Tested with Greek Civil War.  Guerrilla war between Royal Greek Government and Communist partisans supported by the Soviets through Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Albania.   Truman asked Congress for military and economic aid for Greece and neighboring Turkey, also facing Soviet pressures.  American aid, along with the Tito-Stalin split, led to defeat of communists in Greece.  Greece and Turkey became part of Westem alliance, even though located in the East.  E) The Berlin Airlift.  Berlin, the old German capital, divided into American, French, British, and Soviet sections.  Located well within the Soviet Zone in East Germany.  Western forces and western style governments in Berlin undesirable to Soviets.  West Berlin was a western enclave in the middle of East Germany. In June 1948,  The Soviets decided to economically besiege West Berlin in June 1948.  They interdicted all transportation to the city.  No food, fuel, or other vital supplies could reach West Berlin.  million West Berliners faced with starvation.   Western Options:  Give Berlin up and withdraw  Create land corridor by force, thus bringing about war.  Conduct an airlift.  Third option chosen.  Thousands of flights by hundreds of transport planes   food, coal, medicine, and other necessities brought in  tons of supplies into West Berlin every day.   Soviet fighters buzzed the airlift planes.   none shot down, because it would lead to war   West did not back down, economic blockade of Berlin ended in May 1949.  F) Western Europe and the Marshall Plan.   considered that miserable economic conditions in Europe might lead to further communist gains.  Plan, named after Secretary of State George Marshall wanted to offer Europe massive economic aid thorugh a coordinated effort.  The European Recovery Program began in 1948, often called the Marshall Plan.  For 5 years, $13 billion in food, fuel, and manufactured goods provided to 16 countries in Europe.  Also offered aid to the coun tries of Eastern Europe, including the SU  SU turned down the aid and obliged other EE countries to do the same. \  Only Yugoslavia accepted.  No strings attached to the help  Countries were to cooperate rather than compete with one another economically.  Goals of the plan:  Stable currency  Increased agricultural and industrial production  Expanded exports and trade  Very Successful  production 41 percent higher than prewar level by 1952.  European currencies stabilized  European exports rose.  Plan used in many ways. [Greek mule story]   Helped bring about European Economic recovery, faster in some places than others.  VII. Opposing Defense Alliances.  Both US and SU maintained large "peactime forces" in Europe during this period"  A) The NATO alliance  US, Canada and ten West European nations to formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organ ization (NATO).  European members were: Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal.  NATO members promised aid to any member that was attacked. The first US peacetime military commitment since 1976.  Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952  West Germany joined in 1955.  Later Spain, Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic.   troops as well as thousands of planes, tanks, and other equipment.  B) The Warsaw Pact.  SU and EE formalized an already existing alliance system of their own in 1955  known as the Warsaw Pact.  Warsaw Pact included: SU, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania.    VIII. Conclusion.  By the end of the 40's the focus of the cold war shifted into Asia and became hot in China, Korea, and Indochina, as well as in the European Colonial World.  Lecture: Decolonialization in Asia and Africa .  I. Introduction.  Along with the cold war, decolonization is the most significant political development in the second half of the twentieth century.   The Postwar growth of nationalism among the peoples of Asia, Africa, and elsewhere brought an end to the great overseas colonial empires of the European powers  The breakup of the Soviet Union brought an end to the Great Russian overland Empire.  The Struggle for independence brought about many conflicts.  Anti-colonial guerrilla wars against European Rule.   Malaya  Indonesia  Vietnam  Afghanistan  Angola  Algeria.  three tides of Independence movements .   fist tide in Asia. Independence of most Asian colonies by the early 1950's, with a few exceptions.  second tide in Africa. Independence of most African colonies by the 1960's, with some exceptions.  third tide in Eurasia. Independance of from Soviet Republics by the 1990's  Internecine and international conflicts before and after independence.  India/Pakistan  Malaya/Singapore  Israel/Palestine  Cyprus  Ethiopia/Somalia  Armenia/Azerbaijan  Some of these conflicts eventually became an important part of the Cold war Struggle .  Korea  Vietnam  Afghanistan  The Cold War in Asia and Africa, while being a political/military sturggle, was also an econimc/indeological struggle over economic development after independence:  the Capitalist/mixedmarket model of the United States and Western Europe.  the Communist/central planning model of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc.  the independent Socialist models of Yugoslavia and other countries.  This struggle also played a role in what form of government were adopted by newly indpendent States.  Single-party states of the Soviet or Communist Chinese model. (Vietnam, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Angol  Single party states of a nativist form of Socialism (Ba'ath Party in Syria and Iraq, Libya)  Nativist or Religious States reacting to modernization and Westernization (Iran and Burma)  Traditionalist regimes. (Saudi Arabia  Military dictatorships.  Pluralistic representative governments  II. The British Commonwealth.  19th and early 20th centuries gradual evolution British Empire's structure and substance.  In settler colonies like Australia, New Zealand, Canada self goverment reached higher levels of administration.  In protectorates like Egypt and Indian Raj self-goverment reached higher levels of administration.  In other direct colonies, self government reached lower levels of administration.  Some British colonies got a large amount of Autonomy and became known as dominions.  Canada  Australia  New Zealand  South Africa  Dominions gained virtual independence after World War I  Canada  Australia  New Zealand  South Africa  Became members in association of based on mutual interests known as British Commonwealth.  Ran their own domestic affairs  some dependence upon Britain in foreign affairs and defense.  Commonwealth found in 1920's  India given Commonwealth Status.  Ireland offered dominion status within Commonwealth   refused it in favor of complete independence.   wabted a republic with no ties, symbolic or otherwise, with England.  did not want the king as theoretical sovereign.   WWII showed that England depended on Dominions and Commonwealth, rather than other way around.  change rapid in the British Commonwealth were greatly accelerated.  Dominions become fully independent, with only symbolic ties to England  Asian colnies, where, seeing British defeated and humiliated by the Japanese now unwilling to return to the old system.   Independence Movements accelerated.  While independence movements grew, ethnic conflict within British colonies also grew.  Muslims and Hindus in India, divided into India and Pakistan in 1948.  Jews and Arabs in Palestine, leads to Independent Israel in 1948 and Arab-Israeli Conflicts. Palestinian-Israeli conflict continued inour own time.  Chinese and Malays in Malaysia, leads to seperation of Singapore and Malaysia,  Greeks and Turks in Cyprus, lead to confrontations and Turkish invasion, bi-zonal Cyprus, Greek and Turkish.  While Britain left most their colonies without engaging in long drawn out wars like the French, they seemed to have held on to power by using divide and rule tactics, hence the religious and ethnic problems in many former British colonies in Asia and Africa.  A) Canada.  WWII enhanced econimic and military poer of Canada. Became the fourth-largest producer of war material of the Allies after US, Britain, and USSR. Moreover, she received no Lend-Lease aid.  Strategic location near the Arctic and Uranium deposities made Canada an important part of NATO during the Cold War..  Canada weakened its ties to Brtian and the Commonwealth. Economic military ties to the US were strengthened with NORAD and NATO defense agreements in the 1940's and the formation of the NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association] in the 1980's.  Ethnic problem between French Quebec and other provinces in the Canadian Federation. Question of ethnic and provincial relations has been a constitutional and political problem in Canada for decades.   B) Australia and New Zealand.  Japanese expansion in Pacific during WWII showed Australia and NZ that Britain could defend them. Most ANZAC forces were serving with British in North Africa and Australia and NZ threatened. US forces came to the rescue. American forces in Australia and NZ bought closer ties to the US.  Australia and NZ took an increased role in Asian and Pacific affairs adminstrating a number of UN trust territories and joining American-sponsored ANZUS and SEATO (Southeast Asian Treaty Treaty Organization) defense alliances.  Australia and New Zealand were far advanced in standard of living and in social legislation. Labor adminstrations instituted a number of welfare/socialist measures. Although the Labor Parties were in and out of power, most of their programs have remained.  C) India and Pakistan.  During the WWII, Gandhi and Indian National Congress took a neutral stand and urged Indians to not participate in the war, the MUslim League supported tha Allied War Effort, and a small nationalist group led by Chandra Bose supported the Axis. All forsaw independence after the war  By 1947 independence was a certainty, but disagreement over state formation between Muslims and Hindus led the British to withdraw and partition India into two separate Dominions, India and Pakistan in 1948. Nehru became Prime Minister of India, and Jinnah of Pakistan.  Civil war broke out and Muslims in India fled to Pakistan and Hindus in Pakistan fled to India. An armistice was signed, but an impasses remained in te Indian state of Kashimr. The Maharajah of Kashmir was a Hindu, while the Kashmiris were predominantly Muslim, and both India and Pakistan claimed Kashmir. A UN Commission attempted a settlement. During tbe civil strife, Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic Hindu.  Pakistan based her constitution on Islamic precepts, while India government developed a native form of Socialism; the traditional caste system of the Hindus was abolished; compulsory education was introduced; and a program of technical and industrial develop- ment was initiated. In 1950 India seceded from the Commonwealth.  D) Ceylon/Sri Lanka.  Ceylon is predominantly Buddhist, with Hindu and Muslim minorities. It had always been administered as a separate colony, as such it was was not greatly affected by the sewctarian strife in India and Pakistan.  In May, 1946,Ceylon was given a new constitution which made it self-governing Dominion and in 1948 became an Independent state known toay as Sri Lanka.  Since independence ethnic violence has developed in northern Sri Lanka between the Hindu Tamil population and the predominantly Buddhist Sri Lankan government.  E) Malaya/Malaysia/Singapore.  Malaya consisted of a Muslim Malay majority and Chinese and Indian minorities, the latter two concentrated in and around Singapore.   The Japanese victory in Malaya and the surrender of 30,000 British at Singapore showed Malys, Chinese and Indian population the tenaciousness of British colonial rule.  The Japanese occupation made it difficult for the British to return.  When they did return in 1945 and tried to set up a Malayan Union under a British governor, violent opposition developed among the Malays, the Chinese and the Indians.  The British changed their original organization of the Colony in 1948 formed federation of Malay States as a Dominion,, but this did not satisfy any of the groups.  A Communist guerrilla movement grew among mainly the Chines population in the late 1940's and early 1950's, but was defeated by the British by the late 1950's.  Malaya became an independent Commonwealth nation in 1957.  Ethnic and political differences brough about a separation of predominantly-Chinese Singapore from Malaya  F) Burma.  The Japanese invasion and occupation of Burma had disruypted British ruile and made it difficult for the British to return.   Great Britain offered Burma dominion status in May 1945, but the Burmese rejected this offer.  In April, 1947, a Burmese Constituent Assembly demanded complete secession from the Commonwealth.  Demand accepted in January, 1948, and Burma became independent.  Later it became known as Mianmar, and has had military government which is xenophobic, anti-western, and Buddhist sectarian in nature.   G) The Union of South Africa.  Jan Smuts dominated politics in South Africa from 1900 to 1948 and maintained ties with Britain and Commonwealth.  In 1948 Smuts voted out of office new Nationalist Party government was established.  The Nationalist Party was militantly and Anti-British and anti-Commonwealth and moved quickly to leave the British Commonwealth.  The Nationalist Party government pursued a policy of racial segregation and harsh restrictive laws against the African population which were reviled throughout Africa and the World.  South African forces in Allied Armies during WWII. As such South Africa claimed Former German Southwest Africa (which had been a League of Nation Mandate), but this claim was disallowed at the 1947 Peace Conference, but South Africa annexed it anyway. Known as Namibia, it gained independence in the 1990's.  III. The French and Dutch Empires.  A) French Indo-China (Viet Nam, Laos, Cambodia).  Indo-China occupied by Japanese in 1940.  Anti-Japanese Guerrilla movement grows. Known as Viet Minh, itr is dominated by commun9ist but ahas the support of the US and allies.   Though the Japanese had allowed the French Governor-General to remain in Indo-China, they executed him in 1945 and set up puppet regime under the Emperor Bao Dai.  the Emperor was forced to abdicate and was replaced by Guerrilla leader Ho Chi- minh, who became President of the independent Republic of Viet Nam.  French had declared Indo-China autonomous part of the French Empire. Viet Minh and Vietnamese govt. broke with France.  French troops landed at Saigon, Viet Minh withdrew to Hanoi. The French organized an Indo-Chinese Federation under a French Commissioner with a doiminion-like govt.  French troops were only in conmtrol of towns. Viet Minh in control of countryside.  Sice the Viet Minh was dominated by the Communists and received aid from Chinese Communists, the United States decided to bolster the French regime in Viet Nam with arms and supplies to prevent the spread of Communism in Asia. Though the two other states of Indo-China (Cambodia and Laos) maintained officially separate regime. they would go the way of the victor.  Viet Minh defeat the french at Dien Ben Phu in 1954.   French negotiate withdrwal at Geneva in 1956.   US enters fray by supporting non-Communist regime in South Viet Nam. Begining of America's Vietnem War.  B) Algeria and North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Libya).  C) The Dutch East Indies/Indonesia.  Like French Indo-China, the Dutch East Indies had been granted independence by the departing Japanese troops.  the Dutch in 1942 had announced that they would give their East Indian colony dominion status after WWII--no longer sufficed.  Nationalists in Java, armed with Japanese weapons, set up a government and proclaimed the Republic of Indonesia, resisted British and Dutch troops originally sent to expel the Japanese.  Fighting between Dutch and Indonesians, some guerrillas organized by Communists, continued UN called to mediate.  United States of Indonesia independent under the nominal rule of Dutch Queen.  There was still, however, an insistent demand for the severance of all ties with the Netherlands.  Eventually occurred in the 1950's  VI. China. China will be covered in an indivual section subsequently.  V. The United States and the Philippines.  In June, 1944, President Roosevelt had announced the coming independence of the Philippines, and, following the expulsion of the Japanese, the new Republic was inaugurated (July, 1946).  Roxas became President, to be succeeded on his death by Quiri nos; complete independence was granted, excepting that the United States, in behalf of international security, retained certain strategic bases under a 99-year agreement.  These bases were also placed at the disposal of the Security Council of the United Nations.  The Philippine legislature ( a Senate and a House of Repre sentatives) had substantial regulatory power over industry and labor. Freedoms of press, religion, and assembly were guaranteed. with equal suffrage for women.  A major problem was the opposi tion of the Communists the Huks, who did their best to perpet uate a condition of civii strife and rebellion.  VI. The Middle East, 1945-1960.  A) The Arab League.  British and French presence in Middle East Weakens during WWII.  Arab countries, mandates and Independents, did not want power to replace the British and French.  Formed the Arab League in 1946 (initially Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Yemen), to foster political and cultural co-operation among Arab nations and to end foreign rule   Rivalry among the states in the Arab League, between monarchies and republics, weakened it  defeat at the hand of the Israelis in Palestine lowered status  Occupation of Arab Palestine (West Bank) by Jordanian , without consulting other Arab states, further divided it  B) Palestine.  Governed by Britain as a League of Nations mandate   conflict between Arab native majority and Jewish settlers. The former outnumbered the latter five to one, but the Jews regarded Palestine as their national homeland.  The Holocaust and WWII created homeless Jews, who immigrated to Palestine  Strife between the Arabs, the Jews, and the British. Both the Arabs and the Jews claimed Palestine as their own from promises made to both groups by the British in WWI.  both sides hostile the British, who wanted to resolve the problem and leave.  attempts at compromise between Arabs and Jews failed  outbreak of terrorism, notably on the part of the Jewish "Stern Gang" and Irgun which organized attacks against the British and Arabs. Arabs responded by attcks on Jewish settlers.  The British wanted out by the summer 1948 and gave the problem to the UN General Assembly  C) Israel.  UN General Assembly called for partition of Palestine between Arabs and Jews; the United States at first supported the plan, but later revoked her decision.  British withdrew in May 1948;  Jews declared the Republic of Israel in Palestine, not waiting for a decision by the UN General Assembly.  war promptly broke out between Arabs and Jews   Count Bernadotte, sent to Palestine as United Nations mediator, was murdered by a band of Sternists.  The Israelis, whose center formerly been at Tel Aviv, called Jerusalem their capital  King Abdullah of Jordan seized the Arab portion of Palestine, including part of Jerusalem, and annexed it to his own kingdom.  By late 1948, Jordanian and other Arab armies on defensive, thousands of Palestinian Arabs become refugees.  British force was sent to Abdullah's aid.  Uneasy armistice was concluded in 1949,  Since then, intemittent conflict between Israel, Arab States and Palestinians  E) Lebanon and Syria.  Lebanon and Syria given independence in 1939   danger of the spread of Nazi influence in the Near East in 1941  British and Free French troops re-occupied Lebanon and Syria.  return to independent status after WWII's  recognized as independent republics by the Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain in 1944.  French forces did not leave withdraw, anti-French outbreaks, culminating in the bombardment of Damascus by the French.  Other Allies persuaded the French to withdraw.  Lebanon and Syria became members of the United Nations and also of the Arab League; both absorbed thousands of refugees who had fled Palestine because of the 1st Arab-Israeli War.  Syria's government taken over by the military and the Ba'athist Socialist Party in the 1950's. Since then authoritarian.   Lebanon multiconfessional parliamentary government, broke down in Civil War in 1970's, restored under Syrian tutelage.   F) Jordan.  Jordan (Transjordan) indepednent in March, 1946.  Hashimite Emir Abdullah, pro-British in the WWII, became king, claimed to represent Palestinian Arabs.  Joined the Arab League  Jordan concluded a pact with Iraq, in June, 1947, whose King was Broither of Abdullah  entry into the United Nations was vetoed by Russia.  Diring first Arab-Israeli War in 1948, Abdullah occupied west bank and Old Jerusalem, proclaimed himself king of Palestine.  Anglo-Jordanian treaty of 1948, joint Defense Board of the two countries; British forces sent Jordan to fend off Israelis in Dec, 1948.  G) Iraq.  Iraq \major Oil center before WWII, independent with British bases in 1930's  Monarchy under Hashimte king.  Occupied by Britain during war to prevent pro-Nazi coup and secure oil for allies.  Anti-British feeling in Iraq after war.  popular opposition and rejection of Anglo-Iraqi defence treaty in 1948.  Joined Arab League, treaties with other Hashimite Kingdom, Jordan, and with Turkey  vigorously Anti Israeli in 1948.  Monarchy overthrown in the 1950.  Since then rule by the military and the Ba'athist Socialist Party.  H) Saudi-Arabia.  Largest state in the Arabian peninsula, independent   Traditionalist monarchy ruled by Saudi family, led by King Ibn-Saud.  Pro-Ally during WWII.  Inportant becuse of Oil (largest world reserves) and strategic location.  Oil production after WWII increases with ARAMCO (Arab-American Oil Company), modernization begun.  American push British out of Oil influence.   Strains on traditional society and government brought about by modernization  I) Yemen.  Near straits of Aden into Red Sea, Strategic.   Independent monarchy, backward economy and political system.  Movement for modernization and liberalization opposed by King  Civil war between modernizaers and tradtionalists in 1948.  King killed but revolutionary party defeated by heir, who sets up authoritarian regime to maintain the monarchy.  Later Civil Strife ends in division of the country between North Yemen, a kingdom tied to the west, and south Yemen, a People's republic tied to the Soviet Bloc.  Trucial States, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman   Under British protectorate until 1960's and 70's. All become Independent States.  Trucial States become United Arab Emirates.   Oil rich and strategically important.  J) Iran.  Formally Independent before Word War II.  Occupied by British and Soviets during Word War II.  Soviets balked at withrawing  S. Azerbaijan, which, with Soviet help, attempted to break off from Iran and join N. Azerbaijan in , continued to be a source of trouble. The Shah of Iran, keenly interested in the modernization of his country, maintained an iron hold on the country and was pro-western  VII. Decolonization in Africa, 1960-1990. In North Africa, Nationalism grew in the wake of it being a battle ground between the Allies and Axis. In Sub-Saharan Africa, nationalist movements grew during the 1950s.  A. North Africa.  Egypt and the Sudan.  Egypt independent since 1922  British occupation and control at the Suez Canal qualified that independence  British rule continued in the Sudan.  British led Allied forces occupied Egypt to prevent Axis expansion. El Alamein fought there.  Anglo-Egyptian ties worsened after WWII  Egypt demanded withdrawal of all troops from Egypt and Sudan, as well as Eptian control of Sudan.  British withdrew from Egypt proper but not from Canal or Sudan  Nationalist army officers led by Gamal Abdal Nassar overthrew King Farouk in 1954 and established anti-imperialist United Arab Republic.  Nassar's governemt takes over Canal in 1956, leading to French British and Iraeli invasion. Americans and Soviets force them to withdraw.  Egypt close to Soviets until 1973.  Sudanese vote for independence from Britain and Eagypt in 1948. Sudan becomes sovereign republic in 1956.  Islamic republic since 1970's.  Libya  Former Italian Colony  UN Trust Territory Until 1951.  Independent Kingdom under Sanussid dynasty   Oil Rich with US Bases.  Sanussi King overthrown by Military Under Ghaddafy in 1969.  Establishes Anti-Western, pro-Soviet regime that claims to have developed an Islamic road to Socialism.  Tunisia  French protectorate  Growing nationalist movment led to Urban violence in 1952.  French reforms and autonomy.  Inmdependence in 1956.  Republican constitution in 1957,  One of the most moderate governments in North Africa and the Arab world.  Algeria  French Settler Colony.  National independence movement of native Arabs and Berbers grows after WWII.  French refuse to withdraw because Algeria considered part of metropolitan France.  Guerrilla War against French Rule, 1954--1958.   DeGualle Government, after many attempts at compromise, pulls france out of Algeria, violently opposed by European settlers in Algeria.   Nonetheless Algeria indepedent Republic by 1960.   French withdrawal from Algeria led to French withdrawl from most of its colonies in Africa in 1960.  Morocco  French protectorate, nominally under a Sultan   As part of Vichy North Africa, invaded and occupied by Anglo-Americans during WWII.  Post-WWII nationalist movement led by Sultan. Sultan exiled.  Increased distuurbances led to return of Sultan in 1956.  Recognized as sovereign king of Morocco. Morocco becomes Indep0dent Kingdom in 1956.  One of the most moderate governments in North Africa and the Arab world. Pro-Western  B. Former British Colonies south of the Sahara.   The Cold Coast.  The Gold Coast gained independence in 1957 under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah.  It became Ghana.  Nigeria.  Became independent in 1960.  Nigeria was rich in oil reserves, and has utilised the income from oil to finance its economic development.  Civil wars and military regimes.  Tanzania.  Tanganyika became independent in 1961 under the leadership of Julius Nyerere.  In 1964, the island colony of Zanzibar joined with Tanganyika to become Tanzania.  Uganda.  Uganda independent in 1962.  Under brutal military dictator ship of Idi Amin in th 1960's and 1970's  Kenya.  In Kenya, white settlers fought for several years against the insurgent Mau Mau organization.  In 1962, Kenya became independent, and Jomo Kenyatta, one of the founders of the Mau Maus, became the country's first president.  Malawi and Zambia.  Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia gained independence in 1964, becoming Malawi and Zambia, in that order.  Zimbabwe.  Increasing ethnic strife between white settlers and government of Rhodesia and the African Majority in led to a settlement which brought about an African-dominated government by the 1980.  Rhodesia was renamed Zimbabwe.  E. Former French Possessions in Sub Saharan Africa.  French Guinea gained its independence in 1958.  Sekou Toure, Guinea's first leader, took a pro-Soviet stance.  France's other possessions in Sub-Saharan Africa became independent in 1960.  Unlike Guinea, they mostly joined the French Community and maintained ties to France.  Some like Mauritania, have become increasingly associated with militant Islam.  F. Belgian Congo.  The Congo (Zaire). Belgium hoped to maintain control over its rich colony of the Congo in Central Africa.  The Belgians confronted mounting demands for indepcndence, however, and abruptly withdrew in 1960.  The new Republic of the Congo broke into civil strife, which lasted several years.  In 1965, General Joseph Mobuto (b. 1930) seized power and established a dictatorship. Mobuto soon began to change names to erase the colonial past. The Congo became Zaire; its capital of Leopoldville became Kinshasa; and Mobuto Africanized his name, becoming Mobuto Sese Seko.  G. Portugese Angola and Mozambique.   Longest standing colonial power in Africa, Portugal held on to its possessions until the 1970's  After debilitating guerrilla wars in both colonies and the end of the Salazar dictatorship in Portugal, the Portugese finally withdrew from Angola and Mozambique in 1975.  Civil war broke out between various guerrilla factiions, pro-soviet, Maoist, and western factions.  H. The Union of South Africa  As mentioned above, the Nationalist Party froim 1948 developed a system of racial segregation known as apartheid . Africans were compelled to live in separate townships or homelands and had few opportunities opened to them. Opponents were persecuted..  South Africa pulled out of the Commonwealth in 1961, becoming the Republic of South Africa.  Aparteid only ended in the 1990's. To be mentioned later  I. Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea.  Ethiopia and Eritrea.  Ethiopia liberated from Italians in 1941. Became Independent Monarchy again.  Social and economic problems led to political unrest. Ethno-religious conflict between Christian Ethiopians, Muslim Eritreans and Tigrans. Congflict with neighboring Somalia.  Military coup in 1972 overthrew monarchy and established military dictatorship along pro-Soviet, Marxist lines.  Conflict with Somalia as well as civil strife in Ethiopia led to famine in the 1980's often instigated by the Marxist government.   Marxist government overthrown in 1991, Muslim province of Eritrea becomes independent.  Somalia  a former Italian colony achieves indepdendence after a period as a UN trusteeship.  In its struggle with Pro-West Ethiopia Kingdom, it government becomes pro-Soviet.  When Ethiopia gets a Marxist regime, Somalia becomes a western surragate in the horm of Africa.  By the 1980's and 1990's decades of war with neighbors and civil strife among clans leads to a breakdown of Government and UN intervention.  VIII. Conclusions.  Nationalism in Asia and Africa increased during the Second World War. Asians and Africans saw colonial forces defeated and humiliated. No return to the old oder of imperialismWWII ended colonialism, spheres of influence, and protectorates. Imperial countries, either peaceably and violently, were forced to yield control of their possession to native peoples.  Military and economic factors (the Cold War, Oil, etc.), as well as the weaknesses of the new states, meant that American Europesn or Soviet influence continued in newly independent states.  While independence looked as if it was a positive move, the withdrawal of colonial powers left a vacuum that was filled by the rivalry of the Super Powers, US and SU, in the Cold War. Newly independent states became surrogates and fought wars sponsored by the super powers.   The end of European empire did not bring stability to much of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.  Social and economic problems still tremendous.   copyright 2000 Sam Houston State University.  All rights reserved.